Impact of Climate Change on Corroded Reinforced Concrete
Structure in Indonesia Using Web Information Systems and
Technology-Probability Approach
Indra Komara
1,* a
, Priyo Suprobo
2b
and Kivanc Taskin
3c
1
Civil Engineering Department, Institute Technology Adhi Tama Surabaya, Jl. Arif Rahman Hakim 100, Klampis Ngasem,
Sukolilo, Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia
2
Civil Engineering Department, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Jl. Teknik Kimia, Keputih, Sukolilo, Surabaya, East
Java, Indonesia
3
Civil Engineering Department, Eskişehir Teknik Üniversitesi 2 Eylül Kampüsü, 26555 Tepebaşı/Eskişehir, Turkey
Keywords: Climate Change, Probability Approach, Corrosion, Concrete Deterioration, Web Information Technology and
Systems, and Durability Issues.
Abstract: The deterioration of concrete over time, which is influenced by environmental circumstances, is a crucial
factor in determining its durability. This environment may be altered by climate change, accelerating the
deterioration process and affecting the safety, durability, and serviceability of concrete infrastructure,
especially in Indonesia. The concrete deterioration evaluated by the environmental parameter using integrated
web information system provided by the meteorological, climatological, and geophysical agency (BMKG)
website data set using monte Carlo analysis. This approach is used in general to adapt models and investigate
the changing of environment. Climate change connected with the frequency of reinforcing corrosion initiation
and corrosion-induced damage in concrete structures from 2000 to 2023. Since CO
2
concentration and
temperature are the primary causes of increased concrete deterioration, the damage risks will increase.
Change's effect on deterioration cannot be ignored, but it can be countered through innovative design
approaches. Existing concrete structures whose design did not take into account the effects of a changing
climate may deteriorate more quickly than anticipated.
1 INTRODUCTION
In the coming years, infrastructure demand will
increase exponentially. Both developed and
developing countries are investing heavily in their
infrastructure systems to improve quality of life and
economic growth. To accommodate growing
populations and economic growth, developing
countries are investing more in infrastructure
planning and construction. To meet infrastructure
demands, rising Asian countries will need to invest
776 billion dollars every year between 2010 and
2025. (Bhattacharyay, 2012). With 12 billion metric
tonnes used worldwide, concrete is the most widely
used construction material (Ranade, 2014; Yildirim,
a
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7260-0855
b
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2521-2280
c
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8024-4600
Şahmaran and Anil, 2017). It is suited for use in both
developed and developing countries due to the fact
that it is composed of inexpensive and abundant raw
materials. In addition, concrete is a versatile building
material since it can be moulded in a variety of ways
and its mechanical properties may be utilised in a vast
array of structural situations (Taylor and Sæther,
2011).
As a direct result of the widespread usage of
concrete in construction, the material properties and
performance of concrete have a substantial impact on
the global infrastructure's overall health. Concrete is
sadly one of the most fragile materials, despite being
the most commonly used building material. Due to its
brittleness, concrete is susceptible to cracking, which
reduces the durability and sustainability of concrete
Komara, I., Suprobo, P. and Taskin, K.
Impact of Climate Change on Corroded Reinforced Concrete Structure in Indonesia Using Web Information Systems and Technology-Probability Approach.
DOI: 10.5220/0012104500003680
In Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Advanced Engineering and Technology (ICATECH 2023), pages 237-246
ISBN: 978-989-758-663-7; ISSN: 2975-948X
Copyright
c
 2023 by SCITEPRESS – Science and Technology Publications, Lda. Under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)
237

structures. Both newly restored and previously
existing concrete structures exhibit deterioration,
corrosion, and faults. The cost retrofitting under
corrosion is estimated to be between 3 and 4 percent
of their gross domestic product (Stewart, Wang and
Nguyen, 2011; Damme, 2018).
In addition, the most significant performance
requirements for the design, building, and
maintenance of concrete structures are safety,
serviceability, and durability (Ding et al., 2018;
Hájková et al., 2018); In spite of this, all three of these
characteristics will worsen as time passes. The rate at
which concrete structures deteriorate is determined
not only by the environment in which they are placed,
but also by the methods and materials used in their
construction. There is a chance that climate change
will drastically impact this environment, especially
over the long term (Kim, McCarter and Suryanto,
2018; Strategy, Carbon and Resilience, 2021). As a
result, concrete deteriorates differently, affecting its
safety, usage, and lifetime. Climate change can
accelerate corrosion by a few percent, resulting in
hundreds of billions of dollars in yearly maintenance
and repair expenses. Corrosion directly and indirectly
costs a lot (Mattei, 2017).
Several research inform climate change as a long-
term environmental effect on building. Humans'
greenhouse gas emissions are blamed for the planet's
climate. The worldwide bank and meteorological,
climatological, and geophysical agency's annual
reports showed a large increase in atmospheric carbon
dioxide (CO
2
) from 280 ppm in 1850 to 490 ppm in
2023, with an accelerating trend (Wang et al., 2010).
The most conservative estimate of the increase in
global temperatures since industrialization due to
greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere is
2.1 degrees Celsius at 450 parts per million (ppm) of
CO2-equivalent, 2.9 degrees at 550 ppm, 3.6 ppm at
650 ppm, 4.3 ppm at 750 ppm, and 5.5 ppm at 1000
ppm (Intergovernmental panel on climate Change,
2000). Over the past century, thermal expansion and
water transfer between oceans and other reservoirs
like glaciers have caused the global mean temperature
and sea level to rise (Asian Development Bank,
2016).
The anticipated increase in both the intensity and
frequency of severe storms may have a substantial
impact on the loading activities that must be
considered when designing concrete structures. This
must be taken into account (Wang, 2009; Stewart,
Wang and Nguyen, 2011). Consequently,
infrastructure will become more vulnerable as a result
of future increases in loads, deterioration, and
capacity loss. This subject will not be discussed
within the scope of this study, which focuses on the
effects of climate change on the deterioration of
concrete (Bastidas-arteaga et al., no date).
As demonstrated in Figure 1, climate change—
variations in CO
2
, temperature, and relative
humidity—can directly or indirectly cause concrete
structures to deteriorate. Environmental pollutants
cause most climate change-related concrete
degradation. Carbon dioxide and chloride cause
reinforcing steel corrosion. Due to increased
diffusivity, steel corrodes, and hazardous compounds
enter faster at higher temperatures. For every 2
degrees Celsius temperature increase, corrosion may
increase by 15%. Elevated CO2 levels, moderate
temperatures, and high humidity promote concrete
deterioration, affecting Indonesia's and all concrete
infrastructure worldwide. This study focuses on
concrete infrastructure, although temperature and
humidity can affect steel structures (Asian
Development Bank, 2016).
Figure 1: The effects of climate change on reinforced
concrete constructions (Asian Development Bank, 2016).
Buildings and infrastructure have a 30-200-year
lifespan; thus, their design, upkeep, and replacement
must reflect the future environment. Despite the
unpredictability of the climate, an event-based Monte
Carlo simulation can be used to assist in the analysis
of potential implications in this decision-making
process (Stewart, 2010; Stewart, Wang and Nguyen,
2011). This system could inform us of the amount of
design and maintenance modifications required to
ensure safety, serviceability, and durability under any
of the known climate change scenarios (Stewart,
2010). 5–10% more CO2 is found in urban air than in
ICATECH 2023 - International Conference on Advanced Engineering and Technology
238

rural air. Carbonation depths of Reinforced Concrete
(RC) structures with 100-year service lives were
evaluated assuming a climate change scenario
involving up to 450 parts per million of carbon
dioxide (Wales and Carolina, 1998).
This study employs a probabilistic and reliability-
based method to predict corrosion start and severe
cracking for Indonesian concrete infrastructure
exposed to carbonation and chloride-induced
corrosion due to increased CO2 levels and
temperatures using web information approach. The
approach is dissected into its component elements in
great detail in this study. This study examines how
various climate change scenarios may affect
Indonesian concrete constructions' longevity and
damage risk. In turn, these realisations would have
equivalent implications for a number of other nations.
2 SIMULATION AND
PROBABILISTIC MODELLING
USING WEB INFORMATION
SYSTEM
Figure 2 shows that a probabilistic simulation was
used to model carbonation and chloride penetration-
driven concrete degradation. The concept using
analytical approach followed by web-based
illustration technology. Probabilistic modelling of
material property, dimension, model error, ambient
conditions, and uncertainties is used. CO
2
concentration, annual mean temperature, and relative
humidity. Climate influence under reinforced
concrete—corrosion assessment Calculating climate
risk for typical Portland cement–concrete structures
above ground using Life 365 v2.2.
The modelling and simulation approach the
research conducted by Stewart et al. (Stewart, 2010)
and Wang et al.'s study (Wang, 2009). Multiple
models are simulated to comply the comparison
criteria. Time dependant also created as parameter,
followed by environmental parameter. The results
show penetration depth distributions, means, and the
risk of corrosion and damage.
2.1 Corrosion Modelling
Steel reinforcement corrosion can be caused by
carbonation of the concrete cover and chloride
concentrations in excess of a critical threshold. This
cycles parameter is the more common cause of
corrosion. In every circumstance, the expanding
corrosion products cause tensile pressures to be
exerted on the concrete, which ultimately results in
spalling, cover cracking, and a loss of structural
strength. This type of corrosion-related damage is not
only costly but also disruptive to society.
Figure 2: Simulation of reinforced concrete deterioration
under climate change (Al-ostaz et al., 2010).
To account for time-dependent variations in CO
2
concentration, temperature, and relative humidity,
numerous deterioration models need to be adjusted.
2.1.1 Carbonation Penetration Models
The DuraCrete model is considered to be adapted on
which the carbonation depth is assisted (DuraCrete,
1998). It includes time-dependent CO
2
(t) and
temperature f
T
modifications. Those criteria are
distinguished by the carbonation depth model, based
on the model proposed by DuraCrete, with time-
dependent CO
2
(t) and temperature f
T
corrections (t),
which characterized by several equations as follow:
𝑥

(𝑡

)≈

2
𝑓

(𝑡

)𝐷


(𝑡

−2000)
𝑎
𝑘

(1)
Impact of Climate Change on Corroded Reinforced Concrete Structure in Indonesia Using Web Information Systems and
Technology-Probability Approach
239


𝐶


(𝑡

)𝑑𝑡





1
𝑡

−2000



where:
𝐷


(
𝑡
)
=𝐷

𝑡

(2)
𝑎=0.75𝐶

𝐶

𝑂
∝
𝑀


𝑀



(3)
𝑓

(
𝑡

)
≈𝑒









(

)

(4)
𝑇

(𝑡

)≈
∑
𝑇
(
𝑡

)






𝑡

−2000
(5)
CCO
2
(t) is the illustrated time-dependent considering
mass of atmospheric concentration a molecule of
carbon dioxide in 10
-3
kg/m
2
where t is time in years
and t' is the year commencing in the first investigated
in this case a year of 2000. DCO
2
(t) is a carbon
dioxide diffusion coefficient inside concrete, D
1
is the
carbon dioxide diffusion coefficient after one year,
and n
d
is the age factor for the carbon diaxoide
diffusion coefficient. CaO represents the ratio of
calcium oxide concentration in cement; H represents
the degree of hydration; MCaO represents the weight
of molar mass of calcium oxide; and MCO
2
represents the molar mass of carbon dioxide. f
T
(t') is
the temperature (nm) associated with the frequency of
wetting and drying cycles (assuming nm = 0 for factor
of the diffusion coefficient compared to one at 20°C,
E is the diffusion activation energy in kJ/mol, and R
is the constant gas. Carbonation occurs at RH 40–75%
or 50–70% (Bouzoubaâ et al., 2010; Stewart, Wang
and Nguyen, 2011). Another research state that where
the RH below 30% there is little or no carbonation
(Kaewunruen et al., 2018), However, carbonation
processes cannot occur below 50% RH (Atiş, 2003).
2.1.2 Chloride Penetration Models
Diffusion equations form the chloride penetration
model can be seen in Equation (3) followed the
popular model (DuraCrete, 1998). C(x,t) describes
the chloride concentration across depth x at time t or
a calendar year t', t = t+2000.
𝐶
(
𝑥,𝑡
)
=𝐶

1−𝑒𝑟𝑓
𝑥
2

𝑘

𝑘

𝑘

𝑓

(
𝑡

−2000
)


𝑥
𝐷


1
𝑡

−2000


(
𝑡

−2000
)

(6)
Table 1: Corrosion parameter, material properties and dimension adapted from Stewart (Stewart, 2010).
Parameter Mean COV Distribution
f
c
(28) 1.03f’
c
0.18 Normal
CO
2
diffusion coeff. (D
1
)
0.47 – 2.22 × 10
-4
cm
2
s
-1
σ = 0.15 Normal
Age factor – Carbonation (n
d
) 0.19 – 0.240 0.12 Normal
Age factor – Chloride (n) 0.37 – 0.65 σ = 0.07 Normal
Environmental factor (k
e
) 0.265 – 0.924 σ = 0.05 – 0.16 Normal
Diffusion coefficient (D
c
)
7 – 15 ×10
-12
cm
2
s
-1
0.285 Normal
Model Error for crack propagation 1.04 0.09 Normal
k
urban
1.15 0.10
Normal
1
Cover C
nom
+ 6 mm σ =11.5 mm
Normal
2
Surface chloride concentration
1.15 – 7.35 kg/m
3
0.5 – 0.7 Normal
Critical chloride concentration
3.35 kg/m
3
0.375
Normal
3
Corrosion rate (i
corr-20
) – Carbonation
0.17 – 0.43 μA/cm
2
σ = 0.086 – 0.259
μA/cm
2
Lognormal
Corrosion rate (i
corr-20
) – Chloride
2.586 – 6.035 μA/cm
2
σ = 1.724 – 3.448
μA/cm
2
Lognormal
f
t
0.53(f
c
)
0.5
0.13 Normal
E
c
4600(f
c
)
0.5
0.12 Normal
ICATECH 2023 - International Conference on Advanced Engineering and Technology
240

Table 2: Concrete design class category in accordance with SNI 2847 – 2019.
Figure 3: Climate change scenarios for period 100 years (Al-ostaz et al., 2010).
The concentration of surface chloride is denoted
by C
0
, the coefficient of diffusion is denoted by D
c
,
the age factor is denoted by n, and the environmental
component of concrete is denoted by k
e
. k
c
and k
t
refer
to the curing factor and the test technique,
respectively. This study does not take into account the
influence that relative humidity has on chloride
absorption. Because of the reduction in relative
humidity caused by climate change, equation (6) does
not include chloride penetration.
In fact, the characterization of first evaluation is
employed
by using Equation (6), which can be
Exp.
class
Maximum
w/cm
1
Minimum
f’
c,
Mpa
Cementitious materials
2
-types
Calcium
chloride
admixture
ASTM C150 ASTM C595
ASTM
C1157
S0 T/A 17 No type of restriction
S1 0.50 28
II
3,4
Type IP, IS or IT
with (MS)
designation
MS
Not restriction
S2 0.45 31
V
4
Type IP, IS or IT
with (HS)
designation
HS
Not restriction
S3 0.45 31
V plus pozzolan
or slag cement
5
Type IP, IS or IT
with (HS)
designation plus
pozzolan or slag
cemen
t
5
HS plus
pozzolan or
slag
cement
5
Not permitted
W0 N/A 17 None
W1 0.50 28 None
Maximum water-soluble chloride
ion (Cl–) content in concrete,
percent by weight of cement
6
Additional provisions
No prestressed
concrete
Prestressed
concrete
C0 N/A 17 1.00 0.06 None
C1 N/A 17 0.30 0.06
C2 0.40 35 0.15 0.06
Concrete cover
7
Impact of Climate Change on Corroded Reinforced Concrete Structure in Indonesia Using Web Information Systems and
Technology-Probability Approach
241

Figure 4: Result summary using web-based information category in Indonesia (Meteorological, climatological, and
geophysical agency, 2023).
accessed to identify the current condition and the
expected model criteria. Where, the corroded
condition parameter in accordance with the actual
corrosion value of Equation (7).
𝑖

(𝑡)=𝑖


1+𝐾
(
𝑇
(
𝑡
)
−20
)

(7)
where i
corr
20 is the corrosion rate at 20°C and K =
0.025, at least for temperature below 20°C but may
be conservative for T(
t
)>20°C. DuraCrete researched
both values. Equation (7) states that a 2°C
temperature increase increases corrosion by 15%
(Bamforth, 1997; DuraCrete, 2000; Alexander and
Beushausen, 2019).
2.2 Probability of Corrosion Initiation
and Corrosion Damage
When carbonation depth reaches the reinforcing bar's
surface or chloride concentration above the critical
chloride concentration, corrosion ensues. Corrosion
requires these two conditions (Stewart, 2010). The
following equations show the cumulative likelihood
of corrosion starting at time t or calendar year t':
𝑝

(
𝑡′
)
=
Pr

ℎ−𝑥

(
𝑡′
)
<0

Pr

𝐶
(
ℎ,𝑡′
)
−𝐶𝑟<0

(8)
In accordance to Equation above, h symbolises the
concrete cover, x
c
(t) illustrate as the carbonation
depth, C(h,t) alternate as the chloride concentration,
and C
r
the critical chloride concentration. Thus, t = t'
- 2000.
The RC corrosion normally causes by damaged of
the cover or the concrete can easily absorb the water
from outside which interact with the reinforcement
bars. When a crack is wider than one millimetre,
corrosion damage may develop. Then, when the
cracks are in extreme condition, it will lead to
delaminated stage, where all the concrete cover
spalling. This cracks parameter was determined
through simulation using fracture initiation and
propagation models. These models computed the
duration of severe cracking and spalling considering
some past research created by some researches
(Komara et al., 2019, 2020, 2021; Mooy et al., 2020;
Susanti et al., 2021) and are primarily impacted by
cover, concrete strength, and corrosion rate. The
likelihood of corrosion damage is then calculated as
follows:
𝑝

(
𝑡
)
=𝑃𝑟𝑡≥𝑇


(9)
3 STUDY OF PROBABILITY
ANALYSIS OF CORRODED RC
Deterioration of concrete, particularly in RC
structures, is caused by environmental exposures that
can be categorised using a variety of criteria. Past
researchers (Alexander, Dehn and Moyo, 2008)
classifies exposure in regard to the type of
deterioration. In comparison AS3600 (Australian
Standard, 2009) is used to assesses exposure based
on the concrete structure's distance from the coast or
ICATECH 2023 - International Conference on Advanced Engineering and Technology
242

sea, climate (arid, temperate, and tropical), and
industrial zones. Since Indonesian and Australian
environments are similar. In fact, Indonesia exposure
classified by SNI 2847-2019 (Badan Standardisasi
Nasional, 2019) where in detail it is divided into three
categories, S0, S1, S2, S3 (sulphate group), W0 – W1
(in contact with water) and C0 – C2 (corrosion
protection of reinforcement), more information can
be seen in Table 2 this standard also related with ACI
318-14 (American concrete Institute, 2014).
Figure 4 approximates the environmental
exposure of concrete structures in Indonesia, which
depends on temperature, relative humidity, and K-
index. Figure 4 illustrates all Indonesian
archipelagos. which encompasses Borneo, Java, the
Lesser Sunda Islands, Sulawesi, Sumatra, and West
Papua. Each place has its own condition. This
webpage links global demographic statistics confirm
the actual situation cited by annual database
https://www.worlddata.info/asia/indonesia/index.php
(WorldData, 2023) and BMKG (Meteorological,
climatological, and geophysical agency, 2023)
provide records from the previous seventy-three years
which can be accessed through the website processing
by https://www.bmkg.go.id/iklim/?p=tren-suhu. This
data is inputted to conduct the probability analysis.
As a type of additional analysis, inputted distance
exposure also included as design parameter (see
Table 3). This parameter is derived from an
equivalent geographical location to the one being
compared. The combination criterion as a category
for exposure in relation to the minimum cement
concentration and w/c ratio is presented in Table 4.
These two categories are also considered for inclusion
in the evaluation criteria.
Table 3: Exposure class classification varied by nominal
concrete strength.
Exposure
classification
Nominal concrete cover divided by
characteristics strength
unit [MPa] 20 25 32 40 ≥ 50
≥ 50 km 20-50 20-30 20-25 20 20
1 – 50 km 60 40-65 30-45 25-50
≤ 1 km 70 50-65
Table 4: exposure classification to w/c ratio.
Exposure
classification
Minimum cement
content (kg/m3)
Maximum water
/ cement ratio
≥ 50 km 320 0.56
1 – 50 km 320 - 370 0.50 – 0.46
≤ 1 km 420 0.4
The record earlier data created by BMKG, which
is based on a multi-model dataset by the program for
climate model diagnostics (see Figure 4), are also
evaluated for climate change projections.
(Meteorological, climatological, and geophysical
agency, 2023).
As illustrated in Figure 4-5, temperature (T) and
relative humidity (RH) in 2023 based on BMKG,
respectively, T
min
8, T
max
12 and RH
min
5.3%, RH
max
100%. The T and RH in the range of 8% and 70%
increase from 1999. It should be indicated that the
environmental change my be provided by BKMG
models, but they appear mostly to provide similar
trends for all environmental conditions, including
wheatear i.e., rain and wind. Within such range,
change in carbonation and chloride penetration
induced corrosion may not be small enough to be
ignored.
4 DISUCSSION
Simulations suggest that as a result of climate change,
concrete buildings may become both more fragile and
more resistant to damage. The threat posed by climate
change cannot be disregarded in Indonesia or
anywhere else given the fact that increases in CO
2
and
temperatures will have an effect on most, if not all, of
the world's places.
The evaluation of the impact places more of an
emphasis on the relative change in corrosion start and
damage risks as a result of higher CO
2
levels and
temperature compared to values in the year 2000 than
it does on absolute risk forecasts. This is because
higher temperatures and higher CO
2
levels both
increase the likelihood of corrosion starting. This is
due to the fact that both the temperature and the levels
of CO
2
are forecasted to keep climbing over the next
few years. On the other hand, these models are based
on the assumption that the surrounding environment
would not change. Determining the extent to which
environmental factors that are dependent in both time
and space may play a role in the deterioration of
concrete is currently one of the most pressing
questions facing the scientific community. If it turns
out that other models of deterioration are more
applicable, including them into the stochastic and
reliability framework that has been given in this
research won't be a difficult task at all. Even though
different models of deterioration will each generate
their own one-of-a-kind estimates of absolute risk, the
choice of deterioration model ought to have less of an
impact on comparative risks. This is the case despite
the fact that there are multiple models of deterioration.
Impact of Climate Change on Corroded Reinforced Concrete Structure in Indonesia Using Web Information Systems and
Technology-Probability Approach
243

Figure 5: Environment exposure in Indonesia due to (a) Temperature, (b) Relative humidity and (c) K-index (Meteorological,
climatological, and geophysical agency, 2023).
ICATECH 2023 - International Conference on Advanced Engineering and Technology
244

Responses to this change in risk will be new
procedures and materials can reduce corrosion risk in
unbuilt structures. Existing concrete structures can be
made more durable to reduce climate change. Cover
design, cement and mix selection, surface coating
barriers, extraction, and cathodic protection are
examples. A new design might reduce environmental
exposure by enhancing cover and strength grade and
lowering material diffusion coefficient without
harming concrete durability and serviceability. Our
research will highlight the design improvements
needed to maintain concrete structure durability.
Climate change is projected to accelerate the
decay of many existing concrete structures that did
not account for environmental changes. A little
increase in damage hazards could cost hundreds of
billions or trillions of dollars in maintenance and
repair. A cautious approach would propose enhanced
monitoring and maintenance of concrete structures
because this risk varies widely based on location,
environmental exposure, and material design, making
it impossible to predict for each structure. This
research shows that site-specific costs and benefits
will be critical for successful adoption.
5 CONCLUSIONS
In order to evaluate the probabilities of corrosion
initiation and corrosion damage for existing concrete
infrastructure in Indonesia that is subject to climate
change in the current year, which shows future
change, a time-dependent probability study has been
carried out. Compared to the previous figure,
forecasts of atmospheric CO
2
concentration, local
temperature, and humidity changes across the
Indonesian continent for the next 100 years will
increase. The probabilistic study factored in the
unpredictability of CO
2
concentration, degradation
processes, material characteristics, dimensions, and
predictive models. Carbonation-induced damage
risks have been found to rise similarly to the
environment during the past year. The risk of
corrosion due to chloride increases by less than 10
percent, as indicated by the larger figure. The results
were especially sensitive to fluctuations in
atmospheric CO
2
levels. Since CO
2
concentration and
temperature are the key drivers of accelerated
concrete deterioration, the elevated infrastructure
damage risks in Indonesia are anticipated to be
observed in many other concrete infrastructures
across the world. Existing concrete structures whose
design does not account for the effects of climate
change may deteriorate more quickly than expected.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In accordance with the research strategy of
collaboration No.1031/PKS/ITS/2022 with Eskisehir
Technical University, the author would like to
express their gratitude to the ITS – department of civil
engineering as well as the ITS – laboratory of
concrete, advanced materials, and computational
mechanics for their assistance in conducting this
study.
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