Exploring the Veneration of the Divine Mother: Tracing the Cultural

Significance of Ancient Indian Devotion

Vibha Rathod

Department of Humanities

The Bhopal School of Social Sciences, Bhopal, India

Keywords: Shaktism, Mother Goddess, Indian Culture, Matriarchy, Prehistoric Societies.

Abstract: The ancient history of the divine mother holds a revered legacy in India, where the mother figure has been

consistently venerated and is regarded as superior in various aspects. This paper explores the profound roots

of Shaktism within Hinduism and its origins in the early worship of the mother goddess. It delves into the

historical, religious, and cultural contexts surrounding the emergence of the mother goddess cult and its

evolution over time. Additionally, the paper examines the significance of motherhood in Indian society, the

transition from matriarchy to patriarchy, and the prevalence of the 'Niyoga' custom. The study also delves into

primitive religion and the archaeological evidence supporting the veneration of the Mother Goddess in

prehistoric societies. Ultimately, this research sheds light on the enduring and multifaceted concept of the

divine mother in human history. By examining the multifaceted aspects of this devotion, including historical,

sociocultural, and religious dimensions, the study seeks to uncover the enduring influence of the Divine

Mother in shaping in Indian society in India.

1 INTRODUCTION

The veneration of the divine mother is a fundamental

aspect of Indian culture, deeply rooted in the

country's history and religious practices. This paper

explores the rich legacy of the divine mother and the

profound significance of motherhood within Indian

society. It also delves into the emergence and

evolution of Shaktism as a prominent sect within

Hinduism, tracing its origins to the early worship of

the mother goddess. In Indian society, womanhood,

in its entirety, commands respect, but motherhood

holds a special place of reverence. The maternal

figure is elevated to the highest pinnacle of veneration

by her offspring, reflecting a splendid legacy of

motherly devotion. Shaktism, a significant sect within

Hinduism, worships the Great Goddess as the

embodiment of primordial energy, a concept rare in

global religious history. (Smith, 1998).

The worship of the mother goddess is deeply

intertwined with the historical practices of

agricultural communities, which operated under the

principles of mother-right. Early human societies

may have practiced promiscuity, where paternity was

not a concern, and groups were controlled by females.

Matriarchy likely preceded patriarchy,

establishing the priority of mother-right in primitive

society. According to Maine Paternity is a

presumption and maternity a reality. (Maine, 1833)

In Vedic literature, the position of the mother is

unique, and she is regarded as the highest guru. The

epics, such as the Mahabharata and Ramayana, also

depict the exalted status of mothers. The Pandavas'

devotion to their mother and Duryodhana's obedience

to his mother are notable examples. Manusmriti and

Yagyawalk Smriti elevate the mother above the guru.

Puranic and Tantra literature describe the mother as

'Adyashakti,' Jagadamba, and Jagatjanini. This

profound reverence for motherhood is also reflected

in the works of poets like Kalidas and philosophers

like Shankaracharya. The prevalence of the 'Niyoga'

custom in ancient India challenges conventional

notions of physical chastity. It allowed for the raising

of children, particularly sons, through wives in

specific circumstances. This practice highlights the

importance of motherhood over physical chastity in

ancient Indian society.

The myth of motherhood represents an ancient

and foundational understanding of the power inherent

in the maternal role. It symbolizes a force to be

revered and feared, embodying both nurture and awe-

inspiring qualities. Primitive societies began to

Rathod, V.

Exploring the Veneration of the Divine Mother: Tracing the Cultural Signiﬁcance of Ancient Indian Devotion.

DOI: 10.5220/0012519600003792

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 1st Pamir Transboundary Conference for Sustainable Societies (PAMIR 2023), pages 881-886

ISBN: 978-989-758-687-3

881

abstract this concept into a broader, cosmic notion,

personifying it into various goddesses, each

representing different facets of the mother archetype.

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Several authors worked on Manifestation of

Goddesses in sculpture. The most notable work on

Manifestation of Goddesses in Art are as follows-

Heather El good’s book ‘Hinduism and the

Religious Arts’ focuses on the supreme importance of

religious history of India is the worship of mother

Goddesses. He has mentioned the 4

century Vidisha

and nearby Udaygiri caves of Central India, which

were developed under patronage of Kushan dynasty.

The earliest intact body of Hindu Art in India is seen

in Udaygiri, in 20 rock cut chambers. These caves

contain carvings which are vital for the study of the

creation of Hindu Iconography.

Stella Kramrisch’s book ‘The Hindu Temple,’

Motilal Banarsidass provides information about the

different types of temple architecture, the various

stages of construction, the placement of deities in and

around the temple as well as the position and

proportions of the images of Gods from the

foundation to its finial rooted in Vedic tradition. The

author elaborates the chapters on the various part of

the Hindu temple from versus of the Vedas enhancing

its authenticity. This information has added to the

raise the value of the material content of this thesis.

‘Iconography of religions: an introduction’ by

Albert C. Moore intended as the introduction to the

iconography of the religion. It seeks to provide a

systematic approach to the types and the meaning of

the images used in a representative range of the

religious traditions of mankind. The illustrations in

the book included the systematic discussion of

iconographic features.

D. N. Shukla, in his book ‘Vaastu-Shastra’, gives

detailed information about the development of

architecture, iconography of Hindu temples. It further

provides the description of various deities, their

ayudhas, vahanas, Rupa, proportion according to the

Samarangan sutradhara written by king Bhoja

between 1018-1060 A.D.

3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Historical and archaeological methods were

employed in this study. The general approach taken

was interpretive, involving visual analysis to identify

and compare common patterns in the iconography of

goddesses in India, with the assistance of literary

sources.

Fieldwork involved visits to archaeological sites,

monuments, and museums to collect relevant data.

On-site analysis of artifacts and remnants was

conducted to gather information about their form,

function, and meaning. A comprehensive review of

primary written sources, including Puranas,

Brahatsamhita, Manasara, Samrangan Sutradhara,

Agamas, Manjushrimulkalp, Sadhanmala, and more,

was conducted.

The study of iconographic depictions of

goddesses and the rituals associated with them helped

gain an understanding of their symbolism and

importance in contemporary religion and culture.

This involved considering the context of the

iconography, including the architectural setting, ritual

use, materials used, and more. Overall, this research

methodology provided a comprehensive

understanding of the iconography of goddesses in

India.

4 ORIGIN OF SHAKTI

Veneration by her offspring, reflecting a splendid

legacy of motherly devotion. Consequently, Shaktism

has emerged as a profoundly significant sect within

the Hindu religion and maintains its prominence to

this day. Adherents of this faith envision the Great

Goddess as the embodiment of primordial energy and

the wellspring from which all divine and cosmic

manifestations originate. In the annals of religious

history across the globe, a wholly female-centered

system akin to the one found in India is a rarity.

Shaktism, firmly established as a potent religious

sect, undoubtedly originated directly from the early

worship of the mother goddess. This worship held a

prominent place in the religious practices of

agricultural communities, whose social structure was

based upon the principles of mother-right. (Maine,

1833) While concrete evidence is lacking, the

contextual factors surrounding the rise of the mother

goddess cult strongly suggest this connection.

Paternity is a presumption and maternity a reality’.

Child after birth knows none except mother on whom

it is totally dependent; father is only introduced at a

later stage. Mother is, therefore, everything to a child.

This privilege of mother is eternal. Many thinkers

presume an age of promiscuity in the beginning of

human civilization (Westermarck, 1891). In such an

age the question of father right did not arise. Groups

were controlled by females who produced child and

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882

freely mated for the purpose, which later led to

another development in sociological setup.

Matriarchy became the order of the day. It is

generally agreed that Matriarchy preceded Patriarchy.

Therefore, there was priority of mother right

primitive society. (James, 1959) the clan centered in

the women on whose responsibility rested the

essentially important function of rearing up the young

ones and of imparting to them cultural traits including

habits, norms of behaviours, inherited traditions etc.,

were formed by and transmitted through females. The

woman was not only the symbol of generation, but the

actual producer of life. Her organs and attributes were

thought to be endowed with generative power, and so

they had been the life-giving symbols. In the earliest

phases of social evolution, it was this maternity that

held the field, the life producing mother being the

central figure of religion. (Bhattacharya, 1891)

In the Vedic period the position of mother is

unique. She is the highest guru and the rites,

performed by her and for her, lead to the same

conclusion. She is to be respected by her children

thousand times more than the father. Mother is very

near to the child, and she is called ‘Mata’. A Vedic

devotee is seen not satisfied with the paternal

conception of the God and considers him as his

‘Mother’ (Rigveda, VIII,98.11) In the Atharvaveda a

son is warned to abide by the wishes of his mother.

(Atharvaveda, III, 302)

The epics also appear to have held mother in high

esteem. The Mahabharat contains ample references to

prove the exalted status of mother. The Pandavas

were greatly devotes to their mother and obeyed all

her orders, the most unusual and difficult: sharing a

common wife, Draupadi, is an example of this. Even

the Duryodhana listens more to his mother than to his

father. The Ramayana also yields similar examples.

Rama was devoted to his stepmother Kaikeyi also,

who was the root cause of his blighted fortune.

(Kapadia, 1998).

4.1 Manifestation of Goddess in the Pre

and Proto Historic Period

The concept of primitive religion is a complex and

intriguing aspect of human history. To understand it

better, we can explore the insights provided by James

E.O. in his works on the history of religions. In his

writings, James E.O. delves into the origins of

religion by examining ancient artifacts and remnants

left behind by our ancestors. He highlights the

significance of various archaeological findings, such

as graves of the dead, sanctuaries, temples, cult

objects, and even artistic depictions found in

engravings and paintings. These remnants, despite

enduring the passage of time, offer valuable clues

about the early forms of religious expression. (James,

1959).

Primitive religion, according to James E.O., can

be viewed as an innate and profound desire among

primitive humans to establish a harmonious

connection with a concealed transcendental order that

governs both human destinies and natural

phenomena. This desire for connection and

understanding finds its expression through a

structured system of rituals and beliefs. These rituals

and beliefs serve as a means for primitive individuals

to bridge the gap between the tangible, everyday

world and the mysterious, transcendent realm that

shapes their lives and the world around them. (James,

1959). In essence, primitive religion is not merely a

haphazard collection of superstitions or rituals; it

represents a coherent attempt by early humans to

make sense of their existence and to establish a sense

of order and purpose in the face of the unknown. It is

through the study of the relics and remnants of ancient

cultures that we can gain valuable insights into the

evolution of religious thought and practice

throughout human history. James E.O.'s work

underscores the importance of these relics in piecing

together the puzzle of our religious past and

understanding the fundamental human quest for a

connection with the divine.

4.2 Mother Goddess: Indus Valley

Civilization

The Indus Valley has revealed a vast storehouse of

invaluable evidence regarding the religious belief of

a period of which little is known otherwise. Marshall

and other scholars have claimed that the discovery of

Harappan relics presents authentic material for the

study of non-Aryan religions. (J. Marshall,

Mohenjodaro and the Indus Civilization, London,

1931, volume One, page 48.) Though we cannot be

certain about this supposition, yet it is a common

inference of most of the scholars and for the long-time

being should be accepted that the material remains of

Harappan culture represent the pre-Aryan period and

perhaps the non-Aryan.

The divine women or Ishtar type has been

discovered from a number of Indus Valley sites with

their upper body nude and arms kept in dispassionate

manner whereas the divine mother or Isis type is

represented by a child suckling the breast of a female

figurine though this type is comparatively few. c

These clay figurines were kept in every house and

streets of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa, (James, 1959)

Exploring the Veneration of the Divine Mother: Tracing the Cultural Signiﬁcance of Ancient Indian Devotion

883

is a tutelary divinity much as the mother Goddess

which is taken to be still the guardian of the house and

village in India presiding over childbirth and daily

needs. ((James, 1959). In the form of ‘Gram Devta’

she is worshipped throughout India. They may be

manifestations of Mother Earth whose worship as a

household goddess in many parts of India is prevent

Today event (Crook, 1926.)

The terracotta seal, unearthed at Harappa, shows

a nude female figure upside-down with legs wide

apart, and ‘with a plant issuing from her womb and

her arms are shown like Proto-Shiva depiction on the

Mohenjo-Daro seal. Marshall rightly compared this

striking representation of the goddess, with a plant

issuing from the womb, with the device on an early

Gupta terracotta sealing showing a goddess with her

legs in much the same position, but with a lotus

emerging from her neck instead of from her womb.

The idea of vegetation emerging from some part of

the body of the goddess reminds us of the Devi-

màhàtmya concept of the Shàkambhari aspect, in

which she is said to have nourished her drought-

afflicted people with vegetation produced from her

body.

The association of vegetation with the Goddess is

further proved by another seal, where a horned female

figure stands between the two branches of a tree with

her hair falling in coils. A devotee is kneeling beside

the tree, and a goat (perhaps) is standing by the side

or behind the devotee. Below them seven figures,

human figures, holding something in hand and

wearing one-horned dresses can be noticed. Both the

hands of these figurines appear to be falling

downwards, with some action at the end near the

waist and tail, like here formed in a coil at the end. It

falls in a straight line at 30-degree angle.

4.3 Goddess in Vedic Period

It is a commonplace in the study of other religion to

observe that the goddess played only a subordinate

role in the pantheon; the principal deities were

exclusively male, and it was solely by virtue of their

position as concerts of these male deities that the

female divinities acquired their influence. (A.A.

Macdonell, Vedic Mythology (Strasburg, 1897, p

125). No doubt in the Rig Vedic pantheon, male gods

like Varun, Indra, Agni, Surya and others

predominant. This fact has often been explained by

the anthropologist answered that it was mainly due to

patriarchal pattern of Vedic society, whether our

mother goddess cults on the other hand. Owes its

origin to the matriarchal system of societies is a

problem with which we are hardly concerned here

while discussing the position of God is in the Rig

Veda. (Briffault, 1927). We come across several

goddesses in the vast extent of the Rig Vedic

literature. Like Usha, Ratri, Raka, Shivali, Aditi,

Prithvi, diti, svasti, Urvara, Indrani, Anumati,

Apdevis Saraswati, Varuni etc. In the Hindu vedic

texts, Goddess Aditi—the unbound one—is believed

to have made the universe. In the Rig Veda, she is

introduced as the formless ‘Mighty Mother’. She is

described as ‘protectress of all men, her children. She

is all that there is.’ Aditi is the creator, the protector

and the regenerator. She mediates between life and

death. In the Hindu pantheon today, only a handful of

deities can be regarded as descendants of the original

mother goddess of the Vedas.

Durga is simultaneously a descendant of the

Vedic mother-goddess and a creation of the gods. She

contains multitudes; she is the goddess of harvest and

battles, she is a tribal goddess and a Hindu deity, she

is the goddess without a consort and as Gauri, she is

the wife of Lord Shiva. Her origin stories and forms

are many and vary across cultures. The best known of

the myths of Durga are celebrated during the festival

of Dussehra in the month of October-November.

During this time, she is worshipped in her nine forms,

each depicting a phase of her life. Some of these

forms, enumerated below, are worshipped as

goddesses.

4.4 The Antiquity of the Sakti Cult in

India

The antiquity of the Sakti cult in India can be

reasonably dated back to the third millennium B.C.,

based on the discovery of terracotta figurines from

Harappa sites and the presence of symbolic

representations of Sakti in ancient rock shelters.

These symbols often take the form of triangular

genital shapes or symbols denoting fecundity and

fertility. In ancient Vedic times, Sakti was invoked

and revered under various names such as Us, Aditi,

Śri, and Sarasvati. As time progressed, she acquired

different epithets like Durga, Chandika, Saptamātṛkä,

Yoginis, and Camunda during the Epic and

Mahabharata eras. In the Märkandeya Purana, she is

described as Mahākāli, Mahalakshmi, and

Mahisarasvati. Even modern Indian spiritual leaders

like Ramakrishna Param Hansa and Sri Aurobindo

have invoked Sakti in the form of the Divine Mother.

In Vedanta, she is regarded as Maya and Prakriti,

representing the primordial energy responsible for

creating, sustaining, and dissolving the universe. This

explains why the worship of the Divine Mother has

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been an integral part of humanity's spiritual and

religious beliefs since the dawn of civilization.

Sakti, the cradle of the phenomenal existence of

beings, plays a vital role not only in India but also in

the whole world. She is the source of cosmic

evolution and the controller of all forces and

potentialities of nature. She is the immediate cause of

the perceptible world, and all the beings are in her

domain. As such, to know her in the entirety is to

know her reality. To add more, Saktism is the worship

of Sakti or the female principle, the primary factor in

the creation, sustenance and dissolution of the

universe.

4.5 Sakti, the Cradle of the

Phenomenal Existence

Sakti, the cradle of the phenomenal existence of

beings, plays a vital role not only in India but also in

the whole world. She is the source of cosmic

evolution and the controller of all forces and

potentialities of nature. She is the immediate cause of

the perceptible world, and all the beings are in her

domain. As such, to know her in the entirety is to

know her reality. To add more, Saktism is the worship

of Sakti or the female principle, the primary factor in

the creation, sustenance and dissolution of the

universe. The term Sakti represents divinity in

general and stands for the energizing power of some

divinity in particular. Being feminine in gender she

has long been associated with the various male deities

as their energy but in Saktism the energy of each God

becomes personified as his consort, and thus, if a god

is separated from his consort or Sakti, he is powerless

and inert. To justify this statement, Shankaracharya,

the propounder of monistic theory, in the

Saundaryalahari has eulogised the greatness of Sakti.

4.6 Depiction of Goddesses in India

Goddesses are often depicted in various forms of art,

including sculptures, paintings, and icons. The

iconography of goddesses is rich and diverse, with

each goddess having her distinct attributes and

symbols. For example, Durga is often depicted riding

a lion and wielding weapons, symbolizing her power

and ability to overcome evil forces.

The depiction of goddesses is often intertwined

with mythological stories and narratives. These

stories highlight the goddesses' roles, powers, and

interactions with other deities and humans. They

provide a deeper understanding of the goddesses'

significance in Hindu mythology and their relevance

to human life.

Goddesses in India involves elaborate devotional

practices, rituals, and festivals. Temples dedicated to

goddesses are prevalent throughout the country, and

devotees offer prayers, perform rituals, and seek

blessings from the goddesses. Festivals like Navaratri

and Durga Puja are celebrated with great fervour,

honouring the goddesses and their divine presence.

The depiction of goddesses in India goes beyond

their physical form. They represent profound

philosophical concepts and embody different aspects

of existence. For example, goddess Kali symbolizes

the destruction of ego and the ultimate reality beyond

duality. The goddess Lakshmi represents abundance

and prosperity. These symbolic representations

provide deeper insights into the philosophical

underpinnings of Hinduism.

By studying the depiction of goddesses in India,

one can gain a deeper understanding of the cultural,

religious, and artistic aspects of Hinduism. The

goddesses serve as powerful symbols of divinity,

inspiring devotion, and providing guidance to

millions of devotees across the country.

The goddess Durga, summoned by the male

deities and bestowed with their mighty weapons,

vanquishes a buffalo demon who had been

overpowering them. In this portrayal, Durga is

accompanied by her lion companion and firmly

grasps the struggling demon by its nose, enabling her

to thrust her trident into its back. Durga's persona is

multifaceted. Despite being a fierce and unstoppable

warrior, her facial expression in this depiction

conveys a sense of serenity and tranquillity. The

triumph of Durga is commemorated every year during

the six-day festival of Durga Puja.

The depictions of deities adhere to established

rules and standards, particularly in terms of the

proportions of their bodies and faces, as set by the

Kalyana Mandapa centuries ago. It is widely believed

that most deities possess unparalleled beauty, and the

sculpted figures impeccably embody this aesthetic

with their graceful physiques and finely chiselled

facial features, regardless of whether they represent

male or female beings. These images are not created

with the intention of imitating or reproducing reality;

rather, they serve as idealized forms infused with

profound symbolism that signifies the boundless

powers of the divine.

5 CONCLUSION

The veneration of the divine mother in India is a

deeply ingrained cultural and religious phenomenon.

From the ancient roots of mother-right and the

Exploring the Veneration of the Divine Mother: Tracing the Cultural Signiﬁcance of Ancient Indian Devotion

885

worship of mother goddesses to the evolution of

Shaktism, motherhood has held an exalted position.

The portrayal of goddesses in art can give us an

understanding of the position of women in central

Indian society and their role in religious and cultural

practices.

This research paper has explored the multifaceted

nature of the divine mother in Indian culture and its

enduring legacy throughout history.

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