AN EXTENDABLE JAVA FRAMEWORK FOR INSTANCE
SIMILARITIES IN ONTOLOGIES
Mark Hefke, Valentin Zacharias, Andreas Abecker, Qingli Wang
FZI Research Center for Information Technologies at the University of Karlsruhe, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
Ernst Biesalski, Marco Breiter
DaimlerChrysler AG, Plant Wörth, Daimlerstrasse 1, D-76742 Wörth, Germany
Keywords: Ontologies, Similarity, Knowledge Management, Case-Based Reasoning.
Abstract: We present the conceptual basis and a prototypical implementation of a software framework for syntactical
and semantical similarities between ontology instances. Our focus comprises both the implementation of
specific, ontology-based similarity measures and their flexible, efficient, and extensible combination.
1 INTRODUCTION
The importance of ontologies increased significantly
in the recent years with usage scenarios such as the
representation of complex knowledge in application
domains like manufacturing, transportation, or life-
sciences
.
For instance, the DAML Ontology Library
( http://www.daml.org/ontologies/ ) contains 282 on-
tologies in different domains. Ontologies often serve
as a common model for the semantic integration of
heterogeneous information sources
.
Here, one has to
deal with identifying similar entities (concepts, attri-
butes, relations, instances or even instance sets)
within and between ontologies, in order to be able to
build semantic bridges between distributed ontolo-
gies (ontology mapping), or to aggregate comple-
mentary ontologies to a common one (ontology mer-
ging). Due to the complex structure of ontologies
(concepts, concept hierarchies, inverse, symmetric
or transitive relations between concepts, etc.), tradi-
tional syntactical similarity measures like, e.g.,
string comparison or distance-based similarity for
numerical attribute values alone are not able to re-
turn reasonable results for the identification of simi-
lar entities. Therefore we have developed an exten-
sible framework for the flexible combination and pa-
rameterization of syntactical and semantical similari-
ties, in order to compute the similarity between
(sets) of ontology instances. The framework is
designed such that it can easily be integrated in any
ontology-based system.
The paper is organized as follows: In Section 2,
we introduce basic notions for defining similarity
measures and then construct some ontology-related
similarity measures. In Section 3, we show how such
approaches can be implemented in a modular and
extensible software framework. After discussing
related work in Section 4, we conclude in Section 5.
2 ONTOLOGY-BASED
SIMILARITY MEASURES
2.1 Ontologies
In Computer Science, ontologies are formal models
of a domain which support the communication bet-
ween human beings and/or machines. On a socio-
cultural level, ontologies demand a shared under-
standing of concepts and relationships. Technically,
let us use the following definition – which comprises
both schema and instance data in the ontology.
Definition 1 (Ontology).
(,,,,):= , ,OCHCRCHRIRIA
An ontology O is a tuple consisting of: concepts C
of the schema that are arranged in a subsumption
hierarchy HC. Between single concepts exist rela-
263
Hefke M., Zacharias V., Abecker A., Wang Q., Biesalski E. and Breiter M. (2006).
AN EXTENDABLE JAVA FRAMEWORK FOR INSTANCE SIMILARITIES IN ONTOLOGIES.
In Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Enterprise Information Systems - AIDSS, pages 263-269
DOI: 10.5220/0002464302630269
Copyright
c
SciTePress
tions (properties) RC. Relations can also be arranged
in a hierarchy HR. Instances I of a specific concept
are interconnected by property instances RI. Addi-
tionally, one can define axioms A which can be used
to infer new knowledge or to formulate integrity
constraints.
Common languages to represent ontologies are
RDF(S)
( http://www.w3.org/RDF/ ) or OWL
(http://www.w3.org/TR/owl-features/ ).
2.2 Similarity Measures
A similarity measure is a function for quantitatively
computing the similarity between things:
Definition 2 (Similarity Measure). A similarity
measure is a real-valued function sim(x, y): S
2
Æ [0,
1] on a set S measuring the degree of similarity
between x and y.
If we regard two complex objects in the real world
which can be formally described as sets of interrela-
ted ontology instances, the similarity of such two
complex entities Ea and Eb can be assessed follo-
wing the local-global principle which is based on
the assumption that complex objects are built up
from smaller units which can be characterized by a
number of attributes and their respective values. To
compute local – i.e. attribute-specific – similarities,
appropriate local similarity measures are used which
have to be defined accordingly. For the computation
of the global similarity between Ea and Eb, we
combine the results of local similarities, i.e.:
Definition 3 (Similarity Measure for Complex
Objects). A similarity measure for two complex
objects
a
E and
b
E consisting of smaller units
(e
a,1
,e
a,2
,...,e
a,n
) and (e
b,1
,e
b,2
,...,e
b,n
) is a function
)),(),...,((:),(
,,1,1,1 nbnanbaba
eesimeesimAEESim =
where ),(
,, xbxax
eesim is a similarity function defi-
ned on smaller units of
a
E and
b
E . Please note that
those subunits may represent simple attributes as
well as more complex entities themselves.
A
is an
aggregation function (e.g., a weighted sum).
2.3 Semantic Similarity Measures
A semantic similarity measure takes into account not
just the parts of complex objects, but the content of
an ontology as well; it uses background knowledge
to better calculate the similarity of two elements. In
the context of this paper, we restrict ourselves to
only look at the similarity between two instances.
Definition 4 (Semantic Instance Similarity
Measure). A Semantic Instance Similarity Measure
is a function calculating the similarity of two
entities IEE
ba
, with respect to an Ontology
O=(C,HC,RC,HR,I,RI,A):
)),,(),...,,((:),,(
1
OEEsimOEEsimAOEESim
banbaba
=
where ),,( OEEsim
bax
is a similarity function
that compares
a
E and
b
E with regard to a certain
aspect.
Examples for aspects of
x
E are certain attributes,
relations of some type, or the position of
x
E in a ta-
xonomy. Let us briefly explain two exemplary kinds
of similarity measures that take into account the con-
tent of the ontology. The instance aspects that these
similarity measures work on are taxonomic relations
and general (non-taxonomic) relations, respectively.
2.3.1 Taxonomic Similarity
The taxonomic similarity of two instances is calcula-
ted by looking at the relative taxonomic position of
the concepts of the regarded instances. One way to
formalize the notion of “relative position” is by
looking at the “Semantic Cotopy” – the set of all
super concepts – of an instance:
Definition 5 (Taxonomic Similarity). Be SC(i)
(“Semantic Cotopy“) a function that returns the set
of all super concepts of an instance, then the taxono-
mic similarity between instances Iii
21
, is defined
as:
)()(
)()(
:),(
21
21
21
iSCiSC
iSCiSC
iisim
taxonomic
=
2.3.2 Set Similarity
The set similarity is not directly used to compare
two instances, but other instance similarity measures
(like the relational similarity described below) de-
pend on it. Set similarity compares sets of instances;
the method described here is just one example how
to calculate this. The set similarity we describe here
is based on ideas from multi-dimensional scaling.
Given a similarity measure that can compare two in-
stances, the set similarity first represents each in-
ICEIS 2006 - ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS
264
stance by a vector with the similarity to all instances
in one of the compared sets. Then each of the two
sets is represented by the average of these vectors,
and the similarity between the sets is given by the
cosine of the vectors representing the sets.
Definition 6 (Set Similarity).
=
F
f
E
e
sim
Ff
Ee
set
G
G
,cos:
where E is a complex instance ...},{
21
eeE = ,
),...),(),,(),...,,(),,((
2121
fesimfesimeesimeesime =
G
F and
f
G
are defined analogously.
2.3.3 Relational Similarity
Relational similarity looks at the outgoing and in-
coming relations, thus realizing the idea that in-
stances can be considered more similar if they have
relations to similar entities:
Definition 7 (Relational Similarity).
n
JJsim
iisim
nk
kkset
relation
=
=
...1
21
21
),(
:),(
where J
k1
is the set of instances linked to i
1
via a
relationship, and J
k2
analogous. Through the index k,
all relationships in RC are enumerated.
3 SIMILARITY FRAMEWORK
On top of the KAON ontology management system
(http://kaon.semanticweb.org/), we built an exten-
dable Java framework for calculating instance simi-
larities in RDF(S) ontologies. It comes with a set of
semantic similarity measures, including those descri-
bed above. For a concrete application use case, such
as calculating the match between job offers and skill
profiles described in an ontology (see Section 4, or
(Biesalski et al., 2005)), an expert can create a custo-
mized similarity measure by writing an XML file
that describes how semantic similarity measures are
used to compare the different aspects of the complex
instances. New semantic similarity measures can be
added without changing the framework.
3.1 Similarity Measures
As stated already, complex similarity measures can
be defined by an XML file that describes how to
combine the atomic measures. A simple example:
<similarity name='Example'
concept='fzi.de/kmir#Profile'>
<instanceRelationSimilarity weight='3'
relationType='fzi.de/kmir#hasProblem'>
<similarity>
<syntacticSimilarity
language='de'
attributeURI='labelValue'/>
</similarity>
</instanceRelationSimilarity>
</similarity>
The first <similarity> tag states that this measure
has the name “Example” and that it is used ex-
clusively to calculate the similarity between instan-
ces of the concept fzi.de#Profile. This outermost
tag creates a new complex similarity measure; its
content describes how it is calculated. The measure
“Example” only considers one aspect of instances
when comparing them: their relation
fzi.de/kmir#hasProblem.
The similarity of two profile instances only depends
on the similarity of the problems they are associated
with. The <instanceRelationSimilarity> tag gives in-
formation about this part of the similarity measure.
The attribute relationType states which relation we
are talking about; the weight attribute defines the
relative weight of this aspect compared to other
aspects of a complex similarity measure (here we
only have one and could have omitted this attribute).
We have now defined that the similarity between
“#Profile” instances only depends on the similarity
of the instances they have #hasProblem relations to;
what we haven’t said yet, is how these problem in-
stances are compared. As a last resort the system has
a “defaultSimilarity.xml” that defines a similarity
method that would be used if no other can be found,
but this is a very rudimentary. Another possibility is
to include a similarity measure for #Problem instan-
ces in the same XML file; this similarity measure
would be preferred to the default one. The third pos-
sibility has been used in the example: the description
of the similarity measure used for the related instan-
ces is nested inside the <instanceRelationSimilarity>
tag. In the example, the similarity measure used to
compare the problem instances again only considers
one aspect: the syntactic similarity of the (German)
labels – the similarity of two problem instances
depends on the Levenshtein distance of their labels.
AN EXTENDABLE JAVA FRAMEWORK FOR INSTANCE SIMILARITIES IN ONTOLOGIES
265
3.2 Filters
Two different kinds of filters allow to specify which
instances are considered in the calculation and to
precisely define what results are returned. They can
be individually combined from atomic filters.
Pre-filters allow a precise definition of the instances
that should be considered for similarity computation.
These filters are important because similarity calcu-
lations can be computationally very expensive.
<preFilter>
<inclusiveConceptFilter
concept="fzi.de#Human"/>
<inclusiveConceptFilter
concept="fzi.de#chimp"/>
</preFilter
>
The example defines a filter that consists of two
atomic filters. Both state that instances of a certain
concept should be included – here instances of the
concepts #Human and #Chimp.
It is possible to use filters based on KAON Queries
(cf. “Developers Guide for KAON”) in the XML-
based definition of filters in order to further reduce
the number of considered instances. The KAON
conceptual query language allows easy and efficient
locating of elements in KAON OI-models. For
instance, a filter with the query
[#Profile] AND
SOME(<#hasOrganisationType>,!#SME!)
restricts the instances that are considered to those of
type #Profile and with an organisation type #SME
(small and medium enterprises)
Post filters determine how many instances are retur-
ned after similarity computation. There are two filter
types, minSimilarityFilter and maxCountofIn-
stancesFilter. The first defines the minimum si-
milarity to the query instance for an instance to be
included in the result. The second defines a cut-off
for the number of results returned.
<postFilter>
<minSimilarityFilter minimum="0.3"/>
<maxCountOfInstancesFilter
maximum="10"/>
</postFilter>
Here, a filter is defined that restricts the number of
results to 10 and returns only instances with a
similarity of at least 0.3 to the query instance.
3.3 Adding Similarity Measures
For use cases where the atomic similarities included
in the system are not sufficient, it is possible to add
new similarity measures.
A new similarity measure must implement the inter-
face Similarity or InstanceRelationSimilarity: The
second one is for similarity measures that will need
information about the similarity of instances related
to the currently compared ones (like the relational si-
milarity described earlier). Once the new similarity
measure has been implemented, the framework is
alerted about its existence through a change in the
tag library “similarity.tld”:
<tag>
<name>taxonomicSimilarity</name>
<tagclass>
de.fzi.wim.similarity.TaxSim
</tagclass>
</tag>
This example adds a tag <taxonomicSimilarity>
and defines which class implements it. This tag can
then be used alongside the other similarity measures
in XML-files.
4 USE CASES
The strength of our framework is that is easily adap-
table to different domains and use cases. We shortly
sketch two successful use cases.
4.1 Case-Based Reasoning
The KMIR (Knowledge Management Implementa-
tion and Recommendation) Framework (Hefke,
2004) supports organizations in the implementation
of Knowledge Management (KM) by providing re-
commendations wrt. technological, organizational,
and human aspects. These recommendations are ba-
sed on best practice cases (BPCs) for successful KM
introduction. BPCs are structured and stored in an
ontology. A typical KM introduction scenario is de-
scribed as follows: An organization intends to intro-
duce KM. With a web-based self-description compo-
nent, it describes its profile in consideration of orga-
nizational structure (business size, sector, legal form,
processes, etc.) and infrastructure (used tools and
technologies), financial ratios (e.g., turnover, profit)
as well as economic aspects for KM introduction
(e.g., planned implementation time, amortization
time and target costs). Moreover, the organization
can define knowledge problems and requirements, as
well as normative, strategic and operative (know-
ledge) goals wrt. KM. Finally, the organization as-
signs weights to all described aspects in order to
attach more or less importance to them. After that,
the “profile” is stored as a set of instances/ relations
in the ontology representing in this scenario the case
base. In a next step, a matching component identifies
the most similar case(s) in the case base which con-
ICEIS 2006 - ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS
266
sider the same “problem situation” concerning the
introduction of KM by matching the organization
profile against already existing BPCs.
In order to retrieve BPCs that are most similar to a
newly created profile achieved from the self-descrip-
tion process, a matching component matches the
profile against already existing BPCs from the case
base. This is done by combining syntactical similari-
ty measures (distance-based similarity, syntactical
similarity and equality) with semantical similarity
measures (relation similarity, taxonomic similarity
and set similarity). Finally, the most similar BPC(s)
from the case base is/are presented to the requesting
organization including solutions and methods for
solving the similar problem situation.
Distance-based Similarity is used to compare values
of numeric data types (e.g. turnover, profit, number
of KM workers, etc.) from the organization profile
with those of existing BPCs. Syntactical Similarity
and Equality are used for string comparisons in
order to compare problem or goal descriptions, the
name of specific tools or technologies. Relation si-
milarity is used for, e.g., comparing instantiations of
the concept “problem” that are linked to further in-
stantiations of the concept “Core process” using the
relation “(problem) addresses core process”. Set si-
milarity compares each instance or set of instances
in an organisation profile with those of the BPC(s).
Taxonomic Similarity identifies similar profile in-
stances based on their position in the taxonomy. For
instance, an organization is searching for an exten-
sion of its existing groupware system G
1
in order to
achieve better search results. The matching compo-
nent identifies a similar groupware system G
2
in the
case base (which has been extended with a semantic
search functionality) by regarding all instances of
the corresponding concept “groupware” resp. of
more general/specific ones and recommends the as-
signed solution to the requesting organization.
Finally, a weighted average determines the global si-
milarity of all computed local similarities between
the organisation profile, and each of the BPCs, and
presents a ranked list of the best matching results.
4.2 Case-Based Reasoning
A further application domain of the similarity frame-
work has been introduced at DaimlerChrysler AG,
Wörth. Efficient skill management is a key factor
wrt. human resources. Here, matching skill profiles
with position requirements is an essential, yet com-
plex task that is performed in order to staff positions
or project teams, to provide strategically optimized
training recommendations, or to perform succession
planning. Current approaches often lack comprehen-
sive means to compare skill profiles considering in-
terrelations of skills, synonyms, varying skill metrics
of different data sources and application domains.
Our approach (Biesalski et al., 2005) allows to over-
come these challenges with an integrated, ontology-
based skill catalogue for storing and managing
individual skills as well as profiles.
On the basis of the presented similarity framework,
we were able to provide decision makers with fle-
xible similarity measures based on different com-
pound similarity measures:
Direct skill comparison: we require an exact
match of as-is and to-be. So we can specify
K.O. criteria for the central requirements, espe-
cially in strategically important jobs.
Proportional similarity: we identify also par-
tially fulfilled requirements. This is also impor-
tant if we can plan for additional teaching and
qualification, or for “training on the project”.
Compensatory similarity: we identify not only
partially fulfilled requirements, but also over-
qualifications; so, additional expertise on one
hand may compensate deficiencies on the other
hand. If several employees fulfil the K.O. crite-
ria, this can be used to find the most suited one.
Taxonomic similarity: the taxonomic structure
of the skill ontology is taken into account to
find “close matches” in the case that no em-
ployee has exactly the required qualifications.
Also usable for deciding between several candi-
dates, and for refining profile specifications.
Yet since decision makers need to be able to put a
different emphasis on individual skills when staf-
fing, specification of different weights for certain
skill requirements or definition of subsets as manda-
tory elements had to be allowed. In order to support
skill matching with these additional constraints, we
had to introduce customized set similarity, instance
relation and compound similarity measures, which
dynamically compute weights that are specified in
the ontology rather than statically given in the simi-
larity configuration file. This was accomplished by
definition of dedicated weight properties of instan-
ces and provision of references to this weight setting
in the customized configuration format:
<instanceRelationSimilarity weight="#has-
weight" relationType="#has-skill"
depth="3">
</instanceRelationSimilarity>
Another challenge in skill management is to adjust
and optimize efficiency and effectiveness conside-
ring the average number of skills within a profile,
the size of the skill catalogue, or the granularity of
AN EXTENDABLE JAVA FRAMEWORK FOR INSTANCE SIMILARITIES IN ONTOLOGIES
267
weight metrics. Our approach simplifies the defini-
tion and ongoing adjustment of the similarity
measures within the life cycle of the skill manage-
ment solution. This was accomplished by provision
of adaptable configuration files which can be custo-
mized according to the demands of the ever-
changing environment.
Our approach allows us to successfully provide exe-
cutives with context-dependent similarity measures
of skill profiles and position requirements.
5 RELATED WORK
Related work can be coarsely separated into two ca-
tegories: (i) the ontology mapping / alignment
approaches, and (ii) the object similarity approaches.
Ontology alignment and mapping approaches are
concerned with finding corresponding concepts and
instances in different ontologies. They are mostly
motivated by information integration problems
where different ontologies for the same domain need
to be joined or aligned. Approaches comprise the
FOAM Framework for Ontology Alignment and
Mapping (Ehrig & Sure, 2005), AnchorPROMPT
(Noy & Musen, 2003), or GLUE (Doan et al., 2002).
These systems often exploit anchor-based
approaches to conclude semantic similarity from
similar connection structures in the graph constituted
by the relationships between ontology instances.
Object similarity approaches are more similar to the
work presented here and compute the similarity of
objects (instances or concepts) within the same onto-
logy.
Bernstein and colleagues created the SimPack
framework (Bernstein et al., 2004) that uses a set of
similarity measures to calculate the similarity of dif-
ferent concepts. The major difference to our simila-
rity framework is that they are trying to build a ge-
neric similarity measure that works for all domains,
although they do acknowledge the need for what
they call “personalised similarity measures”.
SemMF (Oldakowski & Bizer, 2005) is a simple
customizable framework for instance similarities in
ontologies; it finds the most similar objects for a
query instance in a set of resource objects. The pro-
perties of the query instance need not exactly corres-
pond to properties of the resource objects (a map-
ping between them can be specified in an RDF file),
but the concept taxonomy needs to be the same.
Compared to our approach, SemMF lacks support
for the recursive and set like characteristics of rela-
tional similarity – SemMF cannot compute the simi-
larity of objects based on their relations to other
objects; relations can only be treated like attributes.
Culmone and colleagues (Culmone et al., 2002) de-
scribe a simple mechanism to calculate the similarity
between concepts based on the number of relations
to identical concepts.
(Diaz-Agudo & Gonzalez-Calero, 2001) describe the
architecture of a CBR framework that encompasses
similarity of cases described in an ontology. jColibri
(Bello-Tomás et al., 2004) implements a CBR
framework for the entire CBR lifecycle (retrieve,
reuse, revise, remember). Similarity of cases with
respect to background knowledge is not a part of its
core, but this functionality can be added through
Problem-Solving Methods (PSMs).
6 CONCLUSION
We have presented a flexible and extensible similari-
ty framework for instance-similarity computation in
ontologies. In order to later guarantee the usefulness
of the framework in different application domains,
we started with a collection, analysis and selection
of commonly used traditional similarity measures, as
well as of ontology-related similarity measures.
Here, we rely among others on the theoretical results
of (Ehrig et al., 2005) which provide “a comprehen-
sive framework for measuring similarity within and
between ontologies as a basis for the interoperabili-
ty across various application fields”. Further, we
applied our framework in two different application
domains (Knowledge and Skill Management).
The framework is implemented in Java 1.4 on top of
KAON and uses Xerxes for parsing XML configura-
tion files ( http://xml.apache.org/xerces2-j/ ).
For the future, we plan to technically enhance the
framework, which currently supports RDF(s) and the
more expressive, proprietary KAON language. The-
refore, we will also support the web ontology
language OWL
(http://www.w3.org/TR/owl-ref/).
OWL, for instance, provides different data types,
further special property characteristics, and property
restrictions, which are not supported in KAON, but
promise added value for similarity computation. We
also plan to consider OWL DL’s complex classes
(e.g., by regarding the set operators “intersection-
Of”, “unionOf” and “complementOf”), which enab-
les new ways of filtering similarity sets by directly
using the ontology.
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268
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The work presented has been supported by the
European Commission under grant OntoGov (IST-
507237) and DIP (IST-507483), and by the German
National Ministry for Education and Research
bmb+f under grant Modale (FKZ 01ISC28H). Most
of the work presented was implemented in the
Diploma theses of Mrs. Qingli Wang and Mr. Marco
Breiter.
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Figure 1: Major Components of the Similarity Framework.
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