Proposing a Next Generation of Knowledge Management Systems
for Creative Collaborations in Support of Individuals and Institutions
Featuring a Novel Approach for Meme-based Personal Knowledge Management
Ulrich Schmitt
Business School, University of Stellenbosch, PO Box 610, Bellville 7535, South Africa
Keywords: Personal Knowledge Management, Organizational KM, Knowledge Worker, Memes, Knowcations.
Abstract: Just like the personal computer revolution, it is possible that Knowledge Management (KM) will in the 21
st
century experience a decentralizing revolution that gives more power and autonomy to individuals and self-
organized groups. Seven decades after Vannevar Bush’s still unfulfilled vision of the Memex. Levy’s
scenario stresses the dire need to provide overdue support tools for knowledge workers in our Knowledge
Societies, not at the expense of Organizational KM Systems, but rather as the means to foster a fruitful co-
evolution. With a prototype system addressing these issues about to be converted into a viable Personal KM
system (PKMS), the author follows up on recent publications and considers the impact and potential of a
novel meme-based approach aiming to aid individuals throughout their academic and professional life and
as contributors and beneficiaries of organizational performance and in light of the anticipated next
generation of KM systems.
1 A NEXT GENERATION OF KM
The first generation of Knowledge Management
(KM) has been described as the capturing, storing,
and reusing of existing knowledge including
“systems of managing knowledge like company
yellow pages, experts outlining processes they are
involved in, creating learning communities where
employees/customers share their knowledge,
creating information systems for documenting and
storing knowledge, and so on. These first-generation
KM initiatives were about viewing knowledge as the
foremost strategic asset, measuring it, capturing it,
storing it, and protecting it. They were about treating
knowledge as an asset, recognizing how it influences
strategy, and wanting to make the most of it by
managing it properly” (Pasher and Ronen, 2011).
The second KM generation needs to focus on
creating new knowledge and innovation, a process
which starts with the “reuse or new use of existing
knowledge, adding an invention, and then creating a
new product or service that exploits this invention.”
This process requires creativity and the awareness
that old knowledge becomes obsolete. For reaping
the appropriate rewards, it is essential to
systematically exploit the knowledge captured and
created (Pasher and Ronen, 2011).
In reviewing a wider range of features for the
‘Next KM Generation’ (suggested by Sveiby, Wiig,
Snowdon, McElroy, Ponzi, Miles, St Onge, Allee),
the identified seven key themes prioritize confirm
this need, but also strongly emphasize the personal
and social nature of knowledge (Grant, 2008).
1.1 The Personal KM Agenda
Despite these accentuations and in contrast to
Organizational KM (OKM), Personal KM (PKM)
has been placed historically in a narrow
individualistic confinement (Cheong and Tsui,
2011b).
In limiting its scope, PKM has been labelled as
sophisticated career and life management with a core
focus on personal enquiry (Pauleen and Gorman,
2011) or as a means to improve some skills or
capabilities of individuals (Davenport, 2011),
negating its importance relating to group member
performance, business processes, or new
technologies.
This state surprises in light of prominent past
suggestions to develop a ‘Memex’ for making one’s
“intellectual excursions more enjoyable” (Bush,
346
Schmitt U..
Proposing a Next Generation of Knowledge Management Systems for Creative Collaborations in Support of Individuals and Institutions - Featuring a
Novel Approach for Meme-based Personal Knowledge Management.
DOI: 10.5220/0005154403460353
In Proceedings of the International Conference on Knowledge Management and Information Sharing (KMIS-2014), pages 346-353
ISBN: 978-989-758-050-5
Copyright
c
2014 SCITEPRESS (Science and Technology Publications, Lda.)
1945), to offer assistance in allocating one’s
“attention efficiently among the [emerging]
overabundance of information sources” (Simon,
1971), or to provide adequate organizational
leadership for building, connecting, and energizing
dynamic knowledge-creating environments and their
expansion (Nonaka, 2000). As a result, PKM
remains “a real and pressing problem”, and Bush's
dream of a ‘Memex’ has yet to be fully realized on a
wide scale (Davies 2011).
Appropriately, Wiig argues for shifting the focus
of KM toward strengthening the ability of people for
enabling them to act in the best interest of their
enterprise and its desired strategies and performance
(Wiig 2004). In this context, PKM needs - more
appropriately - to be regarded as a bottom-up
approach to KM (Pollard, 2008), as opposed to the
more traditional, top-down Organizational KM. As
such, PKM also “goes beyond Personal Information
Management” (PIM) which focusses predominantly
on information processing without the emphasis on
creating new knowledge (Cheong and Tsui, 2011a).
But, although there are many PKM tools
available, “they are not integrated with each other”,
and the “currently available PKM systems can
provide only a partial support to knowledge
workers” (Osis, 2011). “While today we have many
powerful applications for locating vast amounts of
digital information, we lack effective tools for
selecting, structuring, personalizing, and making
sense of the digital resources available to us” (Kahle,
2009).
Meanwhile, the organizational, commercial,
social and legal innovations driven by technological
progress and economic pressures continue to have
profound impacts. Work has suffered from a process
of fragmentation which will continue to accelerate.
Its implications include one’s slipping control over
constant interruptions, the loss of time for real
concentration, and less learning by observation and
reflection (Gratton, 2011). With specializations and
domain-specific knowledge on the rise, peoples
identification has shifted from their company to their
profession, and vertical hierarchies and traditional
career ladders have been replaced by sideways
career moves between companies and a horizontal
labour market (Florida, 2012). The ‘Future of
Employment’ study estimates 47% of the current US
employment to be still at risk due to recent
technological breakthroughs able to turn previously
non-routine tasks into well-defined problems
susceptible to computerization (Frey and Osborne,
2013).
What is overdue is - in the opinion of the author -
an innovative PKM technology to provide the means
for life-long-learning, resourcefulness, creative
authorship and teamwork throughout an individual’s
academic and professional life and for his/her role as
contributor and beneficiary of organizational and
societal performance. It needs to support the notion
that knowledge and skills of knowledge workers are
portable and mobile and with it their options on
where, how, and for whom they will put their
knowledge to work.
1.2 Intents and Barriers to Overcome
In Wiig’s opinion (2011), individuals need to be
highly knowledgeable not only to function
competently as part of the workforce, but also in
their daily lives and as public citizens: “In a society
with broad personal competences, decision-making
everywhere will maximize personal goals, provide
effective public agencies and governance, make
commerce and industry competitive, and ensure that
personal and family decisions and actions will
improve societal functions and Quality of Life.” But,
“for better performance, people must [also] be
provided with resources and opportunities to do their
best. They need knowledge and understanding as
well as motivation and supportive attitudes.”
Such resources may well be autonomous PKM
capacities, networked in continuous feedback loops,
where individuals are able to determine how their
expertise will be used or exchanged with people,
communities, or organizations close to them. Levy
(2011) expects such systems - nourished by the
creative conversation of the many networked PKM
devices - to assume an elementary role that enables
the emergence of the distributed processes of
collective intelligence, which in turn feed them.
Accordingly, he sketches a scenario which
stresses the vital role of future education “to
encourage in students the sustainable growth of
autonomous capacities in PKM” and which
envisages KM to experience “a decentralizing
revolution that gives more power and autonomy to
individuals and self-organized groups” (Levy, 2011).
Although the author concurs that PKM Systems
(PKMS) are destined to become potent drivers of
human development (Schmitt, 2014b), an enabling
technological environment benefitting such a novel
solution is presently facing severe barriers wasting
individuals’ time and efforts (Schmitt, 2014f). The
remedies have been summed up into five provisions:
1. Digital personal and personalized knowledge is
always in the possession and at the personal disposal
of its owner or eligible co-worker, residing in
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personal hardware or personalized cloud-databases.
2. Contents are kept in a standardized, consistent,
transparent, flexible, and secure format for easy
retrieval, expansion, sharing, pooling, re-use and
authoring, or migration.
3. Information and functionalities can continually be
used without disruption independent of changing
one’s social, educational, professional, or
technological environment.
4. Collaboration capabilities have to be mutually
beneficial to facilitate consolidated team and
enterprise actions that convert individual into
organizational performances.
5. The PKM system designs and complex operations
are based on a concept, functionalities, and
interventions which are clearly understood and are
painlessly applied in practice.
“These provisions are aiming to strengthen
individual sovereignty by employing grass roots,
bottoms-up, lightweight, affordable, personal
applications rather than today’s top-down,
heavyweight, prohibitive, institutional approaches
and centralized developments - not at the expense of
Organizational KM Systems, but rather as the means
to foster a fruitful co-evolution” (Schmitt, 2014f).
2 A PKM PROTOTYPE SYSTEM
To facilitate such a co-evolution, a number of recent
papers have explored the related issues. The first
paper identifies challenges for individuals managing
their knowledge at the acquisition, preservation,
collaborative, capacity development, and conceptual
level and looks at approaches to address them
(Schmitt, 2012). Subsequently, these challenges
were attended to in more detail. Two papers
introduce an extension of the ignorance matrix and
discuss the role of PKM systems in making citizens
highly knowledgeable (Schmitt, 2013e 2014c). Four
papers look at the workplace and careers of
knowledge workers in the business, educational, and
developmental context (Schmitt, 2013f 2014a) and
examine PKM’s role in Higher Education (Schmitt
and Butchart, 2013a 2014g). Two papers
demonstrate the close proximity of the PKM concept
and functionalities with renowned KM models and
established organizational KM practices (Schmitt,
2013c 2013g). A poster and paper integrate the
models and practices in the PKMS concept and map
the resulting process cycles in a three-dimensional
information-space (Schmitt, 2013d 2014e).
Based on the current state of needs and
uninspiring solutions, two papers advocate the ‘Five
PKMS Provisions’ discussed by questioning the
current logics and logistics of centralized
institutional approaches and by suggesting remedies
to overcome persisting market barriers (Schmitt,
2013b 2014f). These papers concentrate on the
realities encountered and the opportunities for
change and were concluded with a paper positioning
PKM systems in the context of human development
(Schmitt, 2014b).
The papers follow-up on and set the stage for
further developing a PKM prototype used personally
for career support as a management consultant,
scholar, professor, and academic manager. With the
development platforms and cloud-based services
available now, an innovation opportunity has
presented itself for converting and advancing the
prototype into a viable PKM system across
platforms.
2.1 A Novel Meme-based Approach
As alluded to, a PKMS is supposed to serve its
master over a lifetime of educational and
professional careers and to allow his/her knowledge
to continuously evolve in the process. Thus, a
meme-based rather than document-centric design
typifies the prototype and also acts on the fifth
provision; what one has to refer to and what one
needs to store at the same time, is much smaller and
more distinct than documents.
Memes are basic building blocks of knowledge
(in the eyes of the beholder), originally described by
Dawkins (1976) as units of cultural transmission or
imitation. To live on, a meme has to be able to
survive in the medium it occupies and the medium
itself has to survive. Memes can either be encoded in
durable vectors (e.g. storage devices, books, great
art, major myths, or artefacts) spreading almost
unchanged for millennia (Bjarneskans et al., 1999),
or they succeed in competing for a host’s limited
attention span to be memorized (internalization)
until they are forgotten, codified (externalization), or
spread by the spoken word to other hosts’ brains
(socialization) with the potential to mutate into new
variants. To gain an advantage in competing for
attention and survival, it pays to form symbiotic
relationships (combination) with other memes
(memeplexes) to mutually support each other’s
fitness and to replicate together.
The PKMS explores and exploits its accessible
‘Meme or Knowledge Base’ by supporting a user’s
cognitive capacity to identify, save, recall, and
utilize the meme structures of interest. The tasks
consists of reliably storing and retrieving textual,
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visual, audio, or video input with their relevant
frames of references (e.g. origins, titles, formats,
licenses), embedded in a more-dimensional
classification system for easy access and as original,
pre-edited, and/or already re-combined versions
according to users’ individual preferences and
objectives. Easy accessibility ensures that memes
captured are able to further evolve during learning
processes and to form the symbiotic relationships
alluded to.
By digitally capturing, referencing, and
visualizing these basic information units, the system
allows the user to recall, sequence and combine
stored memes with his/her own new meme creations
(‘nemes’) for integration in any type of authoring
and sharing activity he/she would like to pursue. As
a result, the user obtains the means to retain and
build upon knowledge acquired in order to sustain
personal growth and facilitate productive
contributions and collaborations between fellow
learners and/or professional acquaintances.
A description of the detailed processes and
learning cycles has been provided in an earlier paper
(Schmitt, 2014e) and visualized in a 3xA0-poster to
complement this paper during its presentation (see
appendix). A further paper “How this Paper has been
created by leveraging a PKM System” (Schmitt
2014d) adds the corresponding hands-on user
perspective and reports how the prototype’s concept
is applied by utilizing the prototype for its creation.
Thus, as enablers of personal development and
people empowerment, decentralized autonomous
PKMS capacities will give individuals a better
chance of navigating today’s abundance of
information and changing career patterns. However,
an even larger potential lies in the creative
conversations to be prompted by them, their
contribution to the world’s knowledge base, and
their synergies with organizational KM.
2.2 Conversations and Collaborations
Collaboratively interlinking the knowledge bases
available to collectively harvest, employ and grow
accumulated knowledge subsets based on shared
contents and relationships will improve the
productivity of information seekers and suppliers
alike. Any newly gathered data, information, and
experience can be more easily assimilated due to
robust shared PKM frames of individual knowledge.
One’s attention can be focused on the creative or
innovative objectives set and the networking
required to sustain continuous feedback loops
(supported by cloud computing), instead of dealing
with redundant findings and mundane tasks of
recovering, sorting, and referencing. Moreover, the
opportunities for PKMSs to enhance learning and
knowledge acquisition are extensive, for example:
• Theoretical knowledge and professional practices
can be supplied by lecturers and trainers in meme
format to add to the stock of students’ personal
knowledge bases.
• Researching and Sensemaking can be eased and
accelerated by authors, publishers, and other
external parties who not only add their resources to
the world’s knowledge base in traditional formats
but also complement them with memes and links.
• Group and teamwork can benefit from the creative
conversations taking place which can be logged and
linked to specific memes’ contents under scrutiny or
consideration.
• Writing academic project papers, theses, and
dissertations or professional reports can benefit from
the regular feedback of supervisors, mentors, or
superiors who are able to base their progressing
recommendations on well documented modifica-
tions.
• E-learning course contents can link to meme-based
contents hosted either externally or better already
disseminated to the attendees’ individual PKM
devices for stimulating and furthering their learning
progress and growing their PKMS repositories.
• For fostering mutually beneficial relationships,
Institutions (e.g. Universities, Agencies, NGOs) can
provide their alumni, staff and clients with relevant
contents compatible with their PKM devices (news,
updates, guides, contacts, policies, standards,
advice).
• Capacity building in the development context can
be enhanced by not only providing beneficiaries
with an effective low-cost PKM application
(accessibility easiness), but by also facilitating the
authorship and contribution of own ideas based on
one’s background (expressive creativity), alone or in
collaborative environments with other users/owners
(relational interactivity), and with the opportunity to
add productively to the world’s records (ecological
reciprocity). The terms in brackets refer to Johri’s
and Pal’s (2012) four primary design characteristics
for ‘ICT for Development (ICT4D)’ ventures.
A paper currently under review extends these four
ICT4D criteria into twelve ‘PKM4D’ essentials by
correlating them to the levels of Maslow’s Extended
Hierarchy of Needs (Koltko-Rivera, 2006) with the
term ‘development’ and the dozen features firmly
geared towards future PKM education.
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2.3 Training and Education
Accordingly, all of the author’s papers and
presentations are currently captured in the form of
memes and relationships in the prototype’s
knowledge bases. To paraphrase Bush: “As an added
benefit of the trails captured, the [content provided
by the developer] becomes not only his additions to
the world's record, but entails for his [customers] the
entire scaffolding by which they [have been]
erected” (Bush, 1945).
This representation offers not only flexible
assistance and help functionalities for the user in the
deployment phase but also provides a road map
together with - as Bush put it - “an extensive mesh
of associative multi-disciplinary trails already built-
in of alternative pathways” which can be handily
tracked by a learner (Bush, 1945). These structures
will conveniently accommodate the establishment
and navigation of the PKMS eLearning courses,
planned after the completion of the face-to-face
course design.
A prior paper has already demonstrated, how the
innovative PKMS technology and its application in
academia are supportive of Academic Value Chains
and the Applied Competence Categories of Quali-
fication Frameworks (Schmitt and Butchart, 2014g).
2.4 Synergies with OKMS
An assuring outcome of the design and development
process has been that a considerable number of
renowned knowledge management philosophies and
methodologies can be neatly integrated in the overall
PKM concept proposed, including:
Eight Building Blocks of KM
(Probst 1998, Schmitt 2012),
Domains of Ignorance Matrix, Extensions, Wastes
(Kerwin 1993, Armour 2000, Schmitt 2013e),
Agent and the World Model
(Boisot 2004, Schmitt 2013c),
Concept of Extelligence
(Stewart and Cohen 1999, Schmitt 2013c),
Sensemaking Model for Intelligence Analysis
(Pirolli and Card 2005, Schmitt 2013c),
SECI Loop Model
(Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995, Schmitt 2013g),
Concept of ‘Ba’
(Nonaka et al. 2000, Schmitt 2013g),
JAIST Nanatsudaki or Seven Waterfalls Model
(Wierzbicki, and Nakamori 2007, Schmitt 2013g),
Three Sources of Human Capital or Resources
(Gratton 2011, Schmitt 2012),
Academic Value Chain with Ten Commitments
(Schmitt 2014g),
Ten Applied Competencies of a Qualification
Framework (SAQA 2012, Schmitt 2013c 2014g),
ICTD Criteria of Capable and Convivial Design
Framework (Johri and Pal 2012, Schmitt 2014f),
Three-dimensional Information Space Model
(I-Space) (Boisot 2004, Schmitt 2013bdg 2014d).
Figure 1 shows the result of this integration
process as visualized in the triple A0-sized
conference poster accompanying the paper
presentation. The poster visualizes the relevant
processes and learning cycles within an Information-
Space Model and demonstrates how the PKM
system’s features and functionalities tie in with a
range of the KM models and practices listed.
• The left-hand poster introduces the concepts of
applied competences, intellectual, social, and
emotional capital and the respective system support
to develop, maintain, and monitor the skills and
capitals (Extended Ignorance Matrix,
P.R.O.F.I.L.E.S. Relationship Chart, Personal
Planning Portfolio, and Qualification Framework).
• The right-hand poster references further integrated
KM models supported by the prototype (Concept of
‘ba’, Building Blocks of KM, Sensemaking and
Waterfall Model, Knowledge Types/Assets).
• The proposed PKM concept’s unique meme-based
approach is based on an amalgamation of these
methodologies and its learning cycles are
transparently mapped using Boisot’s three-
dimensional information-space model (Diffusion or
Ownership, Application, and Codification) as
depicted in the centre poster.
It is obvious, that the complexity, management
and resource requirements (technology and
overheads) of an Organizational KMS far exceed
those of a Personal KMS. Nevertheless, this shared
base of methodologies and concepts, the common
resource of the world’s record, and the joint aim to
stay competitive and innovate provide strong
arguments for OKM and PKM to exploit synergies
for mutual benefit and to engage in a fruitful co-
evolution.
As Hamel (2012) pointed out, “what matters
today is how fast a company can create new insights
and build new knowledge, of the sort that enhances
customer value. […] Engagement [of employees]
may have been irrelevant in the industrial economy
and optional in the knowledge economy, but [in the
creative economy] it’s pretty much the whole game
now”.
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Figure 1: Poster Presentation of PKMS Concept. (Schmitt, 2014d updated).
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3 THE ROAD AHEAD
After the final touches to the prototype system, it is
planned to transform the prototype into a viable
PKM software application within a year by using a
mobile application development platform.
The concerns to be further elaborated in future
papers are the potential effects of PKMS’s creative
conversations on our citation-based Academic
Reputation Systems and, as pointed out, an
appropriate Training and Service Concept for
Personal Knowledge Management aimed at Higher
Education and Professional Training.
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ProposingaNextGenerationofKnowledgeManagementSystemsforCreativeCollaborationsinSupportofIndividuals
andInstitutions-FeaturingaNovelApproachforMeme-basedPersonalKnowledgeManagement
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