Autonomous Cars: Past, Present and Future
A Review of the Developments in the Last Century, the Present Scenario
and the Expected Future of Autonomous Vehicle Technology
Keshav Bimbraw
Mechanical Engineering Department, Thapar University, P.O. Box 32, Patiala, Punjab, India
Keywords: Autonomous Cars, Autonomous Vehicles, Cars, Mechatronics Systems, Intelligent Transportation
Technologies and Systems, Automation.
Abstract: The field of autonomous automation is of interest to researchers, and much has been accomplished in this
area, of which this paper presents a detailed chronology. This paper can help one understand the trends in
autonomous vehicle technology for the past, present, and future. We see a drastic change in autonomous
vehicle technology since 1920s, when the first radio controlled vehicles were designed. In the subsequent
decades, we see fairly autonomous electric cars powered by embedded circuits in the roads. By 1960s,
autonomous cars having similar electronic guide systems came into picture. 1980s saw vision guided
autonomous vehicles, which was a major milestone in technology and till date we use similar or modified
forms of vision and radio guided technologies. Various semi-autonomous features introduced in modern cars
such as lane keeping, automatic braking and adaptive cruise control are based on such systems. Extensive
network guided systems in conjunction with vision guided features is the future of autonomous vehicles. It is
predicted that most companies will launch fully autonomous vehicles by the advent of next decade. The future
of autonomous vehicles is an ambitious era of safe and comfortable transportation.
1 INTRODUCTION
Consumers all around the whole world are enthusiastic
about
the advent of autonomous cars for public. An
autonomous car
can operate without human control
and does not require any
human intervention.
Campbell et al. stated that modern
autonomous
vehicles can sense their local environment, classify
different kinds of objects that they detect, can
interpret sensory
information to identify appropriate
navigation paths whilst
obeying transportation rules.
Considerable advancements have
been made in
giving an appropriate response to unanticipated
circumstances where either a backlash can occur in the
vehicular
systems or some medium in the external
environment may not
behave as predicted by internal
prototypes. To carry out
successful autonomous
navigation in such situations, combining
a variety of
technologies from different disciplines that span
computer science, mechanical engineering,
electronics
engineering, electrical engineering, and
control engineering, etc.
is significant (Deshpande,
2014). The timeline of autonomous
cars begins in
1926 with world’s first radio controlled car-
‘Linriccan Wonder’. Significant advances in
autonomous car
technology has been made after the
advent of the vision guided
Mercedes-Benz robotic
Van in 1980, since when the main focus
has been on
vision guided systems using LIDAR, radar, GPS
and
computer vision. This developed into the
autonomous
technologies present in modern cars like
adaptive cruise control,
lane parking, steer assist etc.
And, in the future, we will be part
of a future where
fully autonomous cars will be a reality, based
on
official forecasts by various automobile companies.
Transportation accidents is one of the major
causes of death in the world. By 2020, this world
could prevent 5 million human fatalities and 50
million serious injuries by introduction of newer and
innovative methodologies and investments in road
safety, from regional to international levels. The
Commission for Global Road Safety believes that it
is very crucial to stop this avoidable and horrendous
rise in road injuries, and initiate year on year
reductions (Campbell, 2010). Deshpande et al. gave a
figure of nearly 3000 deaths because of road
accidents daily, with more than half of the people not
travelling in a car. Also, it has been reported by
191
Bimbraw K..
Autonomous Cars: Past, Present and Future - A Review of the Developments in the Last Century, the Present Scenario and the Expected Future of
Autonomous Vehicle Technology.
DOI: 10.5220/0005540501910198
In Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Informatics in Control, Automation and Robotics (ICINCO-2015), pages 191-198
ISBN: 978-989-758-122-9
Copyright
c
2015 SCITEPRESS (Science and Technology Publications, Lda.)
Deshpande et al. that if a paramount and efficacious
action is not taken, transportation injuries are set to
rise to 2.4 million per year, becoming the fifth leading
cause of death in the world. So, number of traffic
collisions will drastically decrease, due to an
autonomous system's increased reliability and faster
reaction time compared to humans. This would also
reduce traffic congestion, and thus increase roadway
capacity since autonomous vehicles would lead to a
reduced need of safety gaps and better traffic flow
management. Parking scarcity will become a historic
phenomenon with the advent of autonomous cars, as
cars could drop off passengers, and park at any
suitable space, and then return back to pick up the
passengers. Thus, there would be a reduction in
parking space. Need of physical road signage will
decrease, as autonomous cars will receive necessary
information via network. There would be a reduction
in the need of traffic police. Thus, autonomous cars
can reduce government spending on things like traffic
police. The need for vehicle insurance will also
decrease, along with a decrease in the incidents of car
theft. Efficient car sharing and goods transport
systems (as in case of taxis and trucks respectively)
can be implemented, with total elimination of
redundant passengers. Not everyone is suitable
driving, so, autonomous cars provide a relief from
driving and navigation chores. Also, commute time
will decrease, as autonomous vehicles can travel at
higher speeds with minimum chances of error. The
car’s occupants will appreciate the smoother ride
experience as compared to non-autonomous cars.
Autonomous cars provide excellent benefits, but,
some challenges do exist. Although the notion has
been rejected, but, it is believed that an advent of
autonomous cars would lead to a decrease of driving-
related jobs. Also, situations like inability of drivers
to regain control of their cars due to inexperience of
drivers, etc. is an important challenge. Lots of people
love driving, and it would be difficult for them to
forfeit control of their cars. Autonomous cars also
pose challenges interacting with human-driven
vehicles on the same route. Another challenge to
autonomous cars is that who is to be held liable for
damage- the car manufacturing company, the car’s
occupants/owner, or the government. Thus,
implementation of a legal framework and
establishment of government regulations for
autonomous vehicles is a major problem. Software
reliability is also a major issue. Also, there is a risk of
a car's computer or communication system being
potentially compromised. There is a risk of an
increase in terrorist and criminal activities, for
instance, cars could potentially be loaded with
explosives by terrorist organizations and miscreants.
They could also be used as getaway vehicles and
various other criminal activities. Thus, autonomous
cars have both pros and cons. This paper discusses the
chronology of autonomous cars in a sequential
manner, from historical antecedents to contemporary
advancements to future predictions.
2 HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS
Historical events helped shape modern semi-
autonomous vehicles. The first step towards
autonomous cars was the radio controlled car, called
Linriccan Wonder. It was demonstrated by Houdina
Radio Control in New York City. It was basically a
1926 Chandler that had transmitting antennae on its
rear compartment and was operated by another car
that sent out radio impulses while following it. These
signals were caught by the transmitting antennae. The
antennae sent the signals to circuit- breakers which
operated small electric motors that directed the car’s
movements. It was one of the most primitive forms of
autonomous vehicles. A modified form of Linriccan
Wonder was used by the name "Phantom Auto" and
demonstrated in December 1926 in Milwaukee, by
Achen Motors. GM (General Motors) sponsored
Norman Bel Geddes's exhibit Futurama at the World's
Fair, 1939, which depicted embedded-circuit
powered electric cars. The circuits were embedded in
the roadway and controlled by radio, much like
previous attempts for development of driverless cars.
So, RCA Labs presented a significantly advanced
model for autonomous cars.
RCA Labs built a miniature car in 1953. It was
controlled and guided by wires that were laid in a
pattern on a laboratory floor. Leland Hancock, a
traffic engineer in Nebraska, and L. N. Ress, a state
engineer took the idea of RCA Labs to a greater scale,
by experimenting with the system in actual highway
installations, which was done on a 121.92 meters long
strip of highway just outside the town of Lincoln,
Neb, in 1958. A series of detector circuits buried in
the pavement were a series of lights along the edge of
the road, which were able to send impulses to guide
the car and determine the presence and velocity of any
metallic vehicle on its surface. General Motors
collaborated with it, and paired two standard models
with equipment having special radio receivers and
audible and visual warning devices that were able to
simulate automatic steering, accelerating and brake
control. Based on advanced models, in 1959, and
throughout the 1960s, in Motorama (which was an
auto show by GM), Firebird was showcased by
ICINCO2015-12thInternationalConferenceonInformaticsinControl,AutomationandRobotics
192
General Motors, which was a series of experimental
cars which had an electronic guide system which
could rush it over an automatic highway without
driver’s involvement (Cranswick, 2013; Burgan,
1999; Temple, 2006). This led to Ohio State
University's Communication and Control Systems
Laboratory to launch a project to develop driverless
cars which were activated by electronic devices
imbedded in the roadway, in 1966. United Kingdom's
Transport and Road Research Laboratory tested a
driverless car, Citroen DS that interacted with
magnetic cables that were embedded in the road,
during the 1960s. It went through a test track at 130
km/h without deviation of speed or direction in any
weather condition. It travelled in a far more effective
way than by human control (Cardew, 1970; Pressnel,
1999).
The United States’ Bureau of Public Roads
considered the construction of an experimental
electronically controlled highway, in which, four
states- Ohio, Massachusetts, New York and
California - bade for the construction. The then
governor, DiSalle pressed for such experiments for
the future of automation. In the 1980s, a vision-
guided driverless Mercedes-Benz robotic van, which
was designed by Ernst Dickmanns and his team at the
Bundeswehr University Munich, Germany, achieved
a speed of 63 km/h on streets without traffic. Various
national and international projects were launched
with the progress in the field of autonomous vehicle
technology. EUREKA conducted the Prometheus
Project on autonomous vehicles from 1987 to 1995.
Over 1 billion US dollars were invested in it (Xie,
1993; Flyte, 1995). DARPA, Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency of the U.S. Department of
Defense is also responsible for the progress in the
field of autonomous cars. Autonomous Land Vehicle
(ALV) project in the United States made use of new
technologies. These technologies were developed by
the Carnegie Mellon University, the Environmental
Research Institute of Michigan, University of
Maryland, Martin Marietta and SRI International.
The ALV project achieved the first road- following
demonstration that used computer vision, LIDAR and
autonomous control to direct a robotic vehicle at
speeds of up to 31 km/h (Davis, 1987; Leighty, 1986;
Lowrie, 1985; Chandran, 1987). HRL Laboratories
(formerly Hughes Research Labs) demonstrated the
first off-road map and sensor- based autonomous
navigation on the ALV. The vehicle traveled over 610
m at 3.1 km/h on complex terrain with steep slopes,
ravines, large rocks, vegetation and other natural
obstacles (Resende, 2013). United States Congress
passed the ISTEA Transportation Authorization bill,
in 1991, which instructed US Department of
transportation to demonstrate an automated vehicle
and highway system. The Federal Highway
Administration started with a series of Systems
Analysis and then established the National
Automated Highway System Consortium. The cost
was shared by Federal Highway Administration,
General Motors, UC-Berkeley etc. It was finally
culminated in 1997 in San Diego, California, but later
on dropped because of lack of funds (Bishop Jr,
1993). The newer autonomous vehicles became more
and more efficient with time. The twin robot vehicles
VaMP and Vita-2 of Daimler- Benz and Ernst
Dickmanns of Bundeswehr University Munich, in
1991 drove more than 1,000 km on a Paris three-lane
highway in standard heavy traffic at speeds up to 130
km/h, but semi- autonomously with human
interventions. They demonstrated autonomous
driving in free lanes, convoy driving, and lane
changes with autonomous passing of other cars
(Behringer, 1998). Vehicles highly autonomous, in
some cases exhibited better speeds than human
drivers. In 1995, Dickmanns’ autonomous S-Class
Mercedes-Benz undertook a 1,590 km journey from
Munich, in Germany to Copenhagen, in Denmark and
back, using jolting computer vision and
microprocessors with integral memory designed for
parallel processing to react in real time. The robot
achieved speeds exceeding 175 km/h on the German
Autobahn, with a mean time between human
interventions of 9.0 km, or 95% autonomous driving.
It drove in traffic, executing various maneuvers to
pass other cars (Wenger, 2005; Franke, 1997).
In 1995 itself, the Carnegie Mellon University’s
Navlab project achieved 98.2% autonomous driving
on a 5,000 km cross-country journey which was
dubbed "No Hands Across America" or NHOA. The
car was semi-autonomous by nature: it used neural
networks to control the steering wheel, but throttle
and brakes were human-controlled (Thorpe, 1991;
Pomerleau, 1993). An advanced autonomous vehicle
was exhibited by Alberto Broggi of the University of
Parma. He launched the ARGO Project, which
worked on making a modified Lancia Thema to
follow painted lane marks on a normal highway, in
1996. The apotheosis of the project was a journey of
1,900 km over six days on the roads of northern Italy,
with an average speed of 90 km/h. The car operated
in fully automatic mode for 94% of its journey, with
the longest automatic stretch being 55 km. The
vehicle had two low-cost video cameras on board and
used stereoscopic vision algorithms to understand its
environment (Broggi, 2000). Some countries started
using autonomous public transport systems by the
AutonomousCars:Past,PresentandFuture-AReviewoftheDevelopmentsintheLastCentury,thePresentScenarioand
theExpectedFutureofAutonomousVehicleTechnology
193
dawn of the new millennium. In the early 2000s, the
ParkShuttle, an autonomous public road transport
system, became operational in the Netherlands
(Shladover, 2007; Panatoya, 2003; Andréasson,
2001). US government also started working on
autonomous vehicles, mostly for military usage.
Demo I (US Army), Demo II (DARPA), and Demo
III (US Army), were funded by the US Government
(Hong, 2000). The ability of unmanned ground
vehicles to navigate miles of difficult off-road terrain,
avoiding obstacles such as rocks and trees was
demonstrated by Demo III (2001). Real-Time Control
System, which is a hierarchical control system was
provided by the National Institute for Standards and
Technology. Along with individual vehicles’ control
(e.g. throttle, steering, and brake), groups of vehicles
had their movements automatically coordinated in
response to high level goals (Bellutta, 2000;
Shoemaker, 1998; Hong, 2002).
3 CONTEMPORARY PROGRESS
The modern automobile companies keep coming up
with newer autonomous features in their recent
models. Technological advancements seen every day
in areas like information technology, communication,
data analysis and storage etc. is not exclusive to these
areas alone. The realm of autonomous cars is also
progressing at a rapid rate these days. Segway
Incorporated and General Motors jointly developed a
2 seat electric car, basically designed for urban
environments and which could be driven normally or
operated autonomously. Known as GM’s EN-V
(General Motor’s Electric Networked Vehicle), it was
first unveiled from 1st May through 31st October
2010 at the joint GM & SAIC pavilion at the Expo
2010 in Shanghai. EN-V was further divided into
three different vehicle types: Jiao (Pride), Miao
(Magic), and Xiao (Laugh). EN-V exhibits
autonomous features such as self- parking/retrieval,
vehicle platoons and collision avoidance. GM’s EN-
V became an important advancement towards paving
the way in realizing a higher grade of vehicle
connectivity, vehicle interfaces, motion control
algorithms, and connected autonomous driving
architecture (Eberle, 2011; Mudalige, 2010).
With the advances in autonomous technology,
VIAC or VisLab Intercontinental Autonomous
Challenge was one of the major competitions which
led to improvements in the testing and analysis of
autonomous vehicles and robotics. It was a 13,000
kilometers trip, nearly three months from
Parma, Italy to Shanghai, China from July 20, 2010
to October 28, 2010. It involved four autonomous
vehicles with negligible human intervention and high
level of autonomy. This project was partially funded
by ERC, European Research Council. It showed that
in future it will be possible for goods to be transported
between two continents with environmentally
friendly vehicles with negligible human intervention.
For the first time in history goods were packed in
Parma and taken to Shanghai using autonomous
vehicles (Bertozzi, 2011; Laugier, 2014; Broggi,
2010). Audi’s autonomous TTS research car in
September 2010 completed the 20 kilometers Pike’s
Peak mountain course in 27 minutes, very close to the
human record of 17 minutes. It was a noteworthy
achievement in that it set a benchmark, for the first
time, as to how close driverless vehicles are to the
best of human drivers. Audi TTS employed emerging
software, algorithms, and electronics, basically, to aid
driver’s abilities, much like auto pilot feature of
airplanes and jets (Funke, 2012; Kritayakirana, 2012;
Okuda, 2014). Volkswagen’s "Temporary Autopilot"
(TAP) system can control the car semi-autonomously
at speeds up to 130 kilometers per hour.
It was a milestone on the path towards accident
free driving, according to Jürgen Leohold, head of
Volkswagen Group Research. This system was
initiated as a part of European Union’s $40 million
HAVEit (Highly Automated Vehicles for Intelligent
Transport) project (Flemisch, 2011). It possesses
various driver-assist functions like adaptive cruise
control, and side monitoring for safer lane-changing,
with a radar system, laser scanner and ultrasonic
sensors. When in TAP mode, the car maintains a safe
distance from the vehicle ahead, checks the lane
markers to keep the car in the center, and
automatically slows down when approaching a bend
in the road. It aids in preventing accidents caused by
inattentive drivers. The driver still maintains control
and can override the car's actions at any point,
however (Bartels, 2014).
The first cars licensed for autonomous driving on
the streets and highways of the German state of Berlin
are MadeInGermany and Spirit of Berlin, developed
by the AutoNOMOs Labs. It was a project of Freie
Universität, Berlin, and funded by the German
Federal Ministry of Education and Research. The
project had developing technology for driver
assistance systems, innovative safety systems for cars
and full autonomous vehicles in airports or mines as
its major objectives. It has a very accurate GPS unit
and three laser scanners at the front, and three at the
rear of the vehicle detect any car or pedestrian all
around the car. It can also detect traffic lights,
intercity traffic and roundabouts (Reuschenbach,
ICINCO2015-12thInternationalConferenceonInformaticsinControl,AutomationandRobotics
194
2011; Dias, 2013). Karlsruhe Institute of Technology/
FZI (Forschungszentrum Informatik) and Daimler
R&D made a Mercedes-Benz S-class vehicle which
drove completely autonomously for 100 kilometers
from Mannheim to Pforzheim, Germany. The vehicle
followed the historic Bertha Benz memorial route. It
used next generation radars and stereo cameras which
aided in its autonomous automation. It aimed at
reducing accidents, caused mainly by human error.
Algorithms to link various aspects of automation and
machine vision were used (Franke, 2013; Zeigler,
2014). Toyota developed its autonomous car basically
for elimination of crashes which is one of the main
causes for deaths caused by automation mishaps.
Toyota used something it calls ITS (Intelligent
Transport Systems) technology. The car system has
been engineered in such a way that any system failure
does not cause the car to crash. Lasers and radars have
been used to have an effective know-how of the
surroundings. The car is semi-autonomous, the driver
can gain control of the car anytime he/she wishes.
Toyota’s advanced active safety research car is
leading the automation industry into a new automated
era (Guizzo, 2013). Nissan’s 2014 Infiniti Q50 was
releases in 2013, and was one of company’s most
effective autonomous cars. It uses cameras, radar and
other next generation technology. The model delivers
various features like lane-keeping, collision
avoidance and cruise control. It was one of the first
cars in the world in which the virtual steering column
was used. The driver need not manually operate the
accelerator, brakes or steering wheels. It charts a
course towards the self-driving cars of tomorrow
(Ulrich, 2013; Elżbieta, 2014).
One of VisLab’s advanced autonomous car,
BRAiVE, drove in downtown Parma on July 12th,
2013. It successfully navigated narrow rural roads,
crosswalks, traffic lights, pedestrian areas,
roundabouts and artificial hazards. It was a pioneer in
the field of vehicular robotics, since it was totally
autonomous (Wei, 2013; Broggi, 2013). Nissan Leaf
all-electric car was installed with Nissan’s
autonomous car technology. "LEAF" is also
formatted as a backronym for Leading,
Environmentally friendly, Affordable, Family car.
The car was showcased publicly in August 2013 in
Nissan 360 test drive event held in California. Later
in 2013, the Leaf drove on the Sagami Expressway in
Kanagawa prefecture, Japan. Nissan has plans to
launch several driverless cars by 2020. This
demonstration acted as a prototype for Nissan’s future
driverless cars (Maddern, 2014). A Nissan Leaf fitted
with a prototype Advanced Driver Assistance System
was granted a license plate, because of which it was
allowed to drive on public roads. This led to Nissan’s
goal of launching autonomous cars by 2020 one step
forward. The Advanced Driver Assistance System is
a next generation technology which will form a base
for Nissan’s future autonomous cars. It also uses
sophisticated computer systems and drive by wire
electronics. This car will be used by Nissan’s
engineers to evaluate how its autonomous driving
software performs under real conditions, by using its
time on the public highway to refine the car’s
software. This is being done to prepare the car for a
fully-automated driving future.
Navia is a robotically driven electric shuttle which
operates at a maximum speed of 20 kilometers per
hour. Made by Induct Technology, France, it can
accommodate 10 passengers. It uses four LIDAR
units and stereoscopic optical cameras, and it does not
require any road modifications. Its LIDAR unit and
optical cameras help in generating a real-time three
dimensional map of the surroundings. It is being
successfully tested at various universities across
Switzerland, England and Singapore (Zhang, 2014).
Google plans to unveil hundred driverless car
prototypes built inside Google's secret X lab, as
officially said by the company on 27th May, 2014.
Google proclaims it to be a manifestation of years of
work that began by modifying existing vehicles.
Google plans to release these models in the years to
come. The field of autonomous automation keep on
expanding day by day with newer advances for a
future which is safer and more efficient (Headrick,
2014; Sunwoo, 2014).
4 PROSPECTIVE PREDICTIONS
Any technology enthusiast is curious about the future
of cars and how will cars become more reliable, and
faster. The governmental organizations are very
optimistic about autonomous cars, of course they also
have lots of challenges to face with the advent of
autonomous cars. Autonomous cars provide
advantages like high reliability, high speed, lesser
governmental spending on traffic police, reduced
need of vehicle insurance, reduction of redundant
passengers, etc. with challenges like implementation
of a legal framework for autonomous cars, and
possible criminal and terrorist misuse among some.
By late 2014, Volvo is set to feature ACC (Adaptive
Cruise Control) in conjunction with power assisting
steering (PAS, or simply steer assist). Steer assist
helps the driver man-oeuvre by supplementing
steering effort of the steering wheel. This would aid
the vehicle to automatically follow other cars in
AutonomousCars:Past,PresentandFuture-AReviewoftheDevelopmentsintheLastCentury,thePresentScenarioand
theExpectedFutureofAutonomousVehicleTechnology
195
queues. This is regarded as another dimension of
autonomous driving (de Winter, 2014). The United
States National Telecommunications and Information
Administration, by the end of 2014 would set aside
recommendations for broadband spectrum for
autonomous cars. Other legal framework for an
efficient execution of autonomous networks would be
underway, according to Kim et al. Audi plans to
release its autonomous cars for public by 2015. It will
include features like autonomous acceleration,
steering and braking the car in traffic jams and at low
speeds. This will be basically for relieving the driver
of prosaic driving tasks like driving in heavy traffic.
By the mid of June 2015, various automobile
companies like Nissan, Mercedes, Toyota, Bosch etc.
will introduce various self-driving features like
autonomous steering, braking, lane guidance, throttle,
gear shifting, and unoccupied self-parking after
passengers exit for public use. Also, Mobileye plans
to release its hands-free cars by 2016. This car is
expected to be
fully autonomous.
By the beginning of 2017, the United States
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration is
expected to authorize the adoption of Vehicle- to-
Vehicle technology on all new vehicles, whether
autonomous or not. This would aid in reducing
accidents and vehicle mishaps, and would be aided
with collision avoidance system and other
autonomous technologies (Biswas, 2006). Tesla plans
90% autonomous cars for public which is expected to
have an ‘autopilot’ feature which would make the
‘90% autonomous’ travel possible. Google plans to
release its ‘Self driving cars’ for public by 2018.
These cars would perform all safety functions for the
entire trip, with the driver not expected to control the
vehicle at any time, though the driver would be free
to do so. It shall also include parking functions, and
unoccupied cars shall also be used for transportation
and miscellaneous functions. By 2018, Nissan is set
to bring an autonomous maneuvering feature, in
addition to standard ACC (adaptive cruise control)
and lane keeping. Fully autonomous cars shall be
available by 2019/2020. The era of cars autonomous
to a certain appreciable degree would begin. In order
to bring benefits to its consumers, Volvo is set to
bring an autonomous car which would involve
pioneering technology necessitating considerable
driver support systems, which would aim at avoiding
any kind of crashes and loss of life. Volvo aims to
launch a safety vision which would state that no one
be killed or seriously injured in the upcoming safe
autonomous car, in 2020. By mid of 2020, most of the
major cars companies like Audi, GM, Daimler,
Mercedes-Benz, Nissan, BMW, and Renault expect
to sell vehicles that are somewhat autonomous, if not
fully. Most of the cars would be equipped with
features like ACC, lane keeping, automatic parking
etc. (Schumacher, 1996). Companies like Ford expect
autonomous vehicles with various functions such as
driver assist, ACC, automatic parking etc. by 2025.
Also, it is predicted that most cars would be
autonomous and would be operated completely
independent from a human control by 2035. The
future of autonomous cars is not distant (Garza,
2011).
5 CONCLUSIONS
This paper discusses basic chronology leading to the
development of autonomous cars. Autonomous
vehicles developed from the basic robotic cars to
much efficient and practical vision guided vehicles.
The development of Mercedes- Benz vision guided
autonomous van by Ernst Dickmanns and his team
gave a paradigm shift to the approach followed in
autonomous cars. Also, contemporary developments
in autonomous cars reflect the vivid future
autonomous cars behold. Official future predictions
about autonomous cars point out that most
automobile companies will launch cars with semi and
fully autonomous features by 2020. Most cars are
expected to be fully autonomous by 2035, according
to official predictions as cited earlier. This paper
reviewed the historical antecedents, contemporary
advancements and developments, and predictable
future of semi and fully autonomous cars for public
use.
REFERENCES
Deshpande, Pawan. "Road Safety and Accident Prevention
in India: A review." Int J Adv Engg Tech/Vol. V/Issue
II/April- June 64 (2014): 68.
Campbell, Mark, Magnus Egerstedt, Jonathan P. How, and
Richard M. Murray. "Autonomous driving in urban
environments: approaches, lessons and challenges."
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A:
Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 368,
no. 1928 (2010): 4649-4672.
Cranswick, Marc. Pontiac Firebird: The Auto-Biography.
Veloce Publishing Ltd, 2013.
Burgan, Michael. The Pontiac Firebird. Capstone, 1999.
Temple, David W., Dennis Adler, and Chuck Jordan. GM's
Motorama: the glamorous show cars of a cultural
phenomenon. Motorbooks, 2006.
ICINCO2015-12thInternationalConferenceonInformaticsinControl,AutomationandRobotics
196
Cardew, K. H. F. "The Automatic Steering of Vehicles: An
Experimental System Fitted to a DS 19 Citroen Car."
RRL report; LR 340 (1970).
Pressnell, John. Citroen DS: The complete story. Crowood,
1999.
Xie, Ming, Laurent Trassoudaine, Joseph Alizon, Monique
Thonnat, and Jean Gallice. "Active and intelligent
sensing of road obstacles: Application to the European
Eureka PROMETHEUS Project." In Computer Vision,
1993. Proceedings., Fourth International Conference
on, pp. 616-623. IEEE, 1993.
Flyte, Margaret Galer. "Safe design of in-vehicle
information and support systems: the human factors
issues." International journal of vehicle design 16, no.
2-3 (1995): 158-169.
Davis, Larry S., Daniel Dementhon, Ramesh Gajulapalli,
Todd R. Kushner,
Jacqueline LeMoigne, and Phillip Veatch. "Vision-based
navigation: A status report." In Proceedings of Image
Understanding Workshop, pp. 153-169. 1987.
Leighty, Robert D. DARPA ALV (Autonomous Land
Vehicle) Summary. No.ETL-R-085. Army Engineer
Topographic Labs fort Belvoir VA, 1986.
Lowrie, James W., Mark Thomas, Keith Gremban, and
Matthew Turk. "The autonomous land vehicle (ALV)
preliminary road-following demonstration." In1985
Cambridge Symposium, pp. 336-350. International
Society for Optics and Photonics, 1985.
Chandran, Sharat, Larry S. Davis, Daniel Dementhon, Sven
J. Dickenson, and.
Suresh Gajulapalli. An Overview of Vision-Based
Navigation for Autonomous Land Vehicles 1986. No.
CAR-TR-285. Maryland Univ College Park Center for
Automation Research, 1987.
Resende, Paulo, Evangeline Pollard, Hao Li, and Fawzi
Nashashibi. "Low Speed Automation: technical
feasibility of the driving sharing in urban areas." In16th
International IEEE Conference on Intelligent
Transportation Systems. 2013.
Bishop Jr, J. Richard, M. Juberts, and D. Raviv.
"Autonomous vision-based technology for avcs." In
Vehicular Technology Conference, 1993., 43rd IEEE,
pp. 360-363. IEEE, 1993.
Behringer, Reinhold, and Nikolaus Muller. "Autonomous
road vehicle guidance from autobahnen to narrow
curves." Robotics and Automation, IEEE Transactions
on 14, no. 5 (1998): 810-815.
Wenger, Josef. "Automotive radar-status and perspectives."
In Compound Semiconductor Integrated Circuit
Symposium, 2005. CSIC'05. IEEE, pp. 4-pp. IEEE,
2005.
Franke, U., S. Gorzig, F. Lindner, D. Mehren, and F.
Paetzold. "Steps towards an intelligent vision system
for driver assistance in urban traffic." In Intelligent
Transportation System, 1997. ITSC'97., IEEE
Conference on, pp. 601-606. IEEE, 1997.
Thorpe, Charles, Martial Herbert, Takeo Kanade, and
Steven Shafer. "Toward autonomous driving: the cmu
navlab. i. perception." IEEE expert 6, no. 4 (1991): 31-
42.
Pomerleau, Dean A. "Knowledge-based training of
artificial neural networks for autonomous robot
driving." In Robot learning, pp. 19-43. Springer US,
1993.
Broggi, Alberto, Massimo Bertozzi, and Alessandra
Fascioli. "Architectural issues on vision-based
automatic vehicle guidance: the experience of the
ARGO project." Real-Time Imaging 6, no. 4 (2000):
313-324.
Shladover, Steven E. "Lane assist systems for bus rapid
transit, Volume I:Technology Assessment." Publication
RTA 65A0160, US Department of Transportation,
Washington, DC (2007).
Panayotova, Tzveta. "People Movers: Systems and case
studies." University of Florida (2003): 9.
Andréasson, Ingmar. "Innovative transit systems." Survey
of current devel(2001).
Hong, T., Marilyn Abrams, Tommy Chang, and M. O.
Shneier. "An intelligent world model for autonomous
off-road driving." Computer Vision and Image
Understanding (2000).
Bellutta, Paolo, Roberto Manduchi, Larry Matthies, Ken
Owens, and Art Rankin. "Terrain perception for DEMO
III." In Intelligent Vehicles Symposium, 2000. IV 2000.
Proceedings of the IEEE, pp. 326-331. IEEE, 2000.
Shoemaker, Charles M., and Jonathan A. Bornstein. "The
Demo III UGV program: A testbed for
autonomous navigation research." In Intelligent
Control (ISIC), 1998. Held jointly with IEEE
International Symposium on Computational
Intelligence in Robotics and Automation (CIRA),
Intelligent Systems and Semiotics (ISAS), Proceedings,
pp. 644-651. IEEE, 1998.
Hong, Tsai Hong, Christopher Rasmussen, Tommy Chang,
and Michael Shneier. "Road detection and tracking for
autonomous mobile robots." InAeroSense 2002, pp.
311-319. International Society for Optics and
Photonics, 2002.
Eberle, Ulrich, and Rittmar von Helmolt. "Sustainable
transportation based on electric vehicle concepts: a
brief overview." Energy & Environmental Science 3,
no. 6 (2010): 689-699.
Mudalige, Priyantha. "Connected autonomous driving:
Electric networked vehicle (EN-V) technology." In
18th ITS World Congress. 2011.
Bertozzi, Massimo, Luca Bombini, Alberto Broggi,
Michele Buzzoni, Elena Cardarelli, Stefano Cattani,
Pietro Cerri et al. "VIAC: An out of ordinary
experiment." In Intelligent Vehicles Symposium (IV),
2011 IEEE, pp. 175-180. IEEE, 2011.
Laugier, Christian, Martinet Philippe, and Nunes Urbano.
"Editorial for special issue on Perception and
Navigation for Autonomous Vehicles." IEEE
Robotics and Automation Magazine (2014).
Broggi, Alberto, Paolo Medici, Elena Cardarelli, Pietro
Cerri, Alessandro Giacomazzo, and Nicola Finardi.
"Development of the control system for the vislab
intercontinental autonomous challenge." In Intelligent
Transportation Systems (ITSC), 2010 13th
International IEEE Conference on, pp. 635-640. IEEE,
AutonomousCars:Past,PresentandFuture-AReviewoftheDevelopmentsintheLastCentury,thePresentScenarioand
theExpectedFutureofAutonomousVehicleTechnology
197
2010.
Funke, Joseph, Paul Theodosis, Rami Hindiyeh, Ganymed
Stanek, Krisada Kritatakirana, Chris Gerdes, Dirk
Langer, Marcial Hernandez, B. Muller-Bessler, and
Burkhard Huhnke. "Up to the limits: Autonomous Audi
TTS." In Intelligent Vehicles Symposium (IV), 2012
IEEE, pp. 541-547. IEEE, 2012.
Kritayakirana, Krisada, and J. Christian Gerdes.
"Autonomous vehicle control at the limits of handling."
International Journal of Vehicle Autonomous
Systems10, no. 4 (2012): 271-296.
Okuda, Ryosuke, Yuki Kajiwara, and Kazuaki Terashima.
"A survey of technical trend of ADAS and autonomous
driving." In VLSI Technology, Systems and
Application (VLSI-TSA), Proceedings of Technical
Program-2014 International Symposium on, pp. 1-4.
IEEE, 2014.
Flemisch, Frank, Anna Schieben, Nadja Schoemig,
Matthias Strauss, Stefan Lueke, and Anna Heyden.
"Design of human computer interfaces for highly
automated vehicles in the eu-project HAVEit." In
Universal Access in Human-Computer Interaction.
Context Diversity, pp. 270-279. Springer Berlin
Heidelberg, 2011.
Bartels, Arne, Thomas Ruchatz, and Stefan Brosig.
"Intelligence in the Automobile of the Future." In Smart
Mobile In-Vehicle Systems, pp. 35-46. Springer New
York, 2014.
Reuschenbach, Arturo, Miao Wang, Tinosch Ganjineh, and
Daniel Gohring."iDriver-Human Machine Interface for
Autonomous Cars." In Information Technology: New
Generations (ITNG), 2011 Eighth International
Conference on, pp. 435-440. IEEE, 2011.
Dias, Jullierme Emiliano Alves. "Modelagem Longitudinal
e Controle de Velocidade de um Carro Autônomo."
PhD diss., Master’s thesis, Universidade Federal de
Minas Gerais. Disponıvel em http://www. ppgee. ufmg.
br, 2013.
Franke, Uwe, David Pfeiffer, Clemens Rabe, Carsten
Knoeppel, Markus Enzweiler, Fridtjof Stein, and Ralf
G. Herrtwich. "Making Bertha See." InComputer
Vision Workshops (ICCVW), 2013 IEEE International
Conference on, pp. 214-221. IEEE, 2013.
Ziegler, Julius, Philipp Bender, Markus Schreiber, Henning
Lategahn, Tobias Strauss, Christoph Stiller, Thao Dang
et al. "Making Bertha Drive? An Autonomous Journey
on a Historic Route." Intelligent Transportation
Systems Magazine, IEEE 6, no. 2 (2014): 8-20.
Guizzo, E. "Toyota’s Semi-Autonomous Car Will Keep
You Safe." Internet:http://spectrum. ieee.
org/automaton/robotics/artificial intelligence/toyota-
semi-autonomous-Iexus-car-will-keep-you- safe
(2013).
Ulrich, Lawrence. "Top 10 tech cars: slenderized."
Spectrum, IEEE 50, no. 4 (2013): 34-41.
Elżbieta, Grzejszczyk. "Communication in Automotive
Networks Illustrated with an Example of Vehicle
Stability Program: Part I-Control Area Network."
GSTF Journal of Engineering Technology 2, no. 4
(2014).
Wei, Junqing, Jarrod M. Snider, Junsung Kim, John M.
Dolan, Raj Rajkumar, and Bakhtiar Litkouhi. "Towards
a viable autonomous driving research platform." In
Intelligent Vehicles Symposium (IV), 2013 IEEE, pp.
763-770. IEEE, 2013.
Broggi, Alberto, Michele Buzzoni, Stefano Debattisti,
Paolo Grisleri, Maria Chiara Laghi, Paolo Medici, and
Pietro Versari. "Extensive Tests of Autonomous
Driving Technologies." (2013): 1-13.
Maddern, Will, Alexander D. Stewart, and Paul Newman.
"LAPS-II: 6-DoF Day and Night Visual Localisation
with Prior 3D Structure for Autonomous Road
Vehicles." In Intelligent Vehicles Symposium, 2014
IEEE. 2014.
Zhang, Rick, and Marco Pavone. "Control of Robotic
Mobility-On-Demand Systems: a Queueing-
Theoretical Perspective." arXiv preprint
arXiv:1404.4391(2014).
Headrick, Dan. "The Ethics and Law of Robots." Research-
Technology Management 57, no. 3 (2014): 6.
Sunwoo, M., K. Jo, Dongchul Kim, J. Kim, and C. Jang.
"Development of Autonomous Car–Part I: Distributed
System Architecture and Development Process."
(2014): 1-1.
de Winter, Joost CF, Riender Happee, Marieke H. Martens,
and Nevile A.Stanton. "Effects of adaptive cruise
control and highly automated driving on workload and
situation awareness: A review of the empirical
evidence."Transportation Research Part F: Traffic
Psychology and Behaviour (2014).
Kim, Moon K., Yaniv Heled, Isaac Asher, and Miles
Thompson."Comparative Analysis of Laws on
Autonomous Vehicles in the US and Europe".
Biswas, Subir, Raymond Tatchikou, and Francois Dion.
"Vehicle-to-vehicle wireless communication protocols
for enhancing highway traffic safety."Communications
Magazine, IEEE 44, no. 1 (2006): 74-82.
Schumacher, Robert W. Smart Cars: 2000 or 2020?. No.
96C026. SAE Technical Paper, 1996.
Garza, Andrew P. "Look Ma, No Hands: Wrinkles and
Wrecks in the Age of Autonomous Vehicles." New
Eng. L. Rev. 46 (2011):58.
ICINCO2015-12thInternationalConferenceonInformaticsinControl,AutomationandRobotics
198
