Information Systems: Towards a System of Information Systems
Majd Saleh and Marie-H
´
el
`
ene Abel
Sorbonne Universit
´
es, Universit
´
e de Technologie de Compi
`
egne, CNRS, UMR 7253 Heudiasyc, Compi
`
egne, France
Keywords:
Information Systems, Knowledge Management, System of Systems, System of Information Systems.
Abstract:
Information Systems are viewed as a set of services creating a workflow of information directed to specific
groups and members. This allows individuals to share ideas and their talents with other members. In such
manner, tasks can be carried out both efficiently and effectively. Due to the nature of Information Systems
that revolves around creating information useful to users, and in some higher forms of Information Systems
creating knowledge, management of information and/or knowledge is part of their functionalities. In this pa-
per we aim to study the placement of Information Systems as part of a System of Systems (SoS), as these
large systems poses significant technical improvement in terms of information interoperability that overcomes
conceptual and technical barriers. Therefore, we move towards defining and modeling System of Informa-
tion Systems (SoIS). This paper discovers what is currently known about Information Systems and Systems
of Systems, and proceeds towards suggesting an architecture of a System of Information Systems that inte-
grates several Information Systems and allows information to be transferred at ease between those different
components.
1 INTRODUCTION
Information Systems have begun to turn simplicity
to complexity, and to turn hard-to-use to easy-to-use.
However, effectiveness and efficiency on information
systems is not satisfying (An, 2010). This universal
nature of existing Information Systems has generated
a strong interest in using an existing set of systems
as the basis for a System of Systems (Simpson and
Dagli, 2008). Further interest in the System of Sys-
tems approach is stimulated by rapid development,
deployment and expansion of new and existing sys-
tems. While successful system and System of Sys-
tems production provides the basis of great potentials,
many system development activities result in failure.
The issue is that while many individual systems work
well as an independent system, they fail when incor-
porated as a component of a System of Systems. The
required System of Systems will need to connect sys-
tems that cross organizational boundaries, come from
multiple domains, and generates an overwhelming
amount of information. Users struggle to deal with
the information produced by each Information Sys-
tem independently by traversing through these sys-
tems and keeping track of the generated information
separately. A solution might be found in a System of
Systems that operates as a single entry point for sev-
eral Information Systems granting the user access to
information produced from multiple Information Sys-
tems, and providing the ability to aggregate available
services to even create an added value not possible
to maintain when those systems were operating sep-
arately. In other words, we might look at this new
system as a System of Information Systems.
Our objective from this paper is to propose an
architecture of a System of Information Systems
comprised of independent Information Systems, with
minimum changes required for the new SoIS to op-
erate successfully, and provide unified entry point to
information and services with an extra added value
not present in the separate Information Systems.
This paper is organized as follows: section 2 will
provide a use case scenario of the intended SoIS to
highlight the need of such system. Then, the notion
of System of Systems is defined and a discussion of
the differences between System of Systems and Com-
posite Systems is presented to draw clear line between
these two concepts. After that, in section 4, the SoIS
architectural model is presented and then discussed by
defining the concept of SoIS, describing the different
information systems involved in our SoIS, and pre-
senting an example following our architectural model
of SoIS. Later, we discuss our findings in section 5
by addressing the issue of expanding our SoIS archi-
Saleh, M. and Abel, M..
Information Systems: Towards a System of Information Systems.
In Proceedings of the 7th International Joint Conference on Knowledge Discovery, Knowledge Engineering and Knowledge Management (IC3K 2015) - Volume 3: KMIS, pages 193-200
ISBN: 978-989-758-158-8
Copyright
c
2015 by SCITEPRESS Science and Technology Publications, Lda. All rights reserved
193
tectural model to accept further information systems,
and compare it to existing SoS. Finally, we conclude
with section 6.
2 USE CASE SCENARIO
There is a growing need not only to use Information
Systems, but also to integrate them with other systems
that can benefit from the information generated and
shared within them. Furthermore, services provided
by other systems can have positive impact on the use
of Information Systems.
To put the idea in perspective, let us take the fol-
lowing scenario; Say a journalist is investigating a
certain topic. First the journalist might visit vari-
ous Social Media Networks and search for this topic
and the people involved in it. Next, the journalist
might need to unveil the ambiguity on certain aspects
to better understand the topic, so he/she starts using
Wikipedia (Wikipedia, 2015) or DBpedia (DBpedia,
2015) to search for keywords related to this topic,
or even use the archive system from other databases
to search for information. Later on, the journalist
might publish some of his/her findings on various So-
cial Media Networks to see the public reaction to the
topic under investigation. Of course, not to forget that
the journalist needs to store and keep track of the in-
formation he/she collected from different Information
Systems, and be able to access the information at all
times to reform an encompassing idea about the topic
at hand. To sum things up, we mentioned a scenario
where the user surfed several Information Systems
and collected information from those systems sepa-
rately. The user also had to work with the informa-
tion collected from separate systems collectively. The
struggle is with accessing all these different Informa-
tion Systems and keeping track of the information ob-
tained and created while doing the work required. The
problems we face here reside in the time required to
traverse between different systems and keep track, or-
ganize, and archive all the information obtained from
these systems.
3 SYSTEM OF SYSTEMS
In this section we plan to go through various defini-
tions of System of Systems presented in the literature.
Then, we are going to highlight the differences be-
tween Systems of Systems and Composite Systems in
order to be clear when describing our own System of
Systems.
3.1 Definitions
The notion of System of Systems (SoS) can be viewed
as an evolution of the standard notion of systems.
Here, we aim to provide abstract and generic defini-
tions of terminology involved in the domain of sys-
tems.
As mentioned by (Karcanias and Hessami, 2010)
A system is an interconnection organization of ob-
jects which are embedded in a given environment”.
An object is defined as “a general unit (abstract or
physical) defined in terms of its attributes and the pos-
sible relations between them”. Furthermore, these ob-
jects are embedded in an environment. For a given
object, we define its environment as the “set of ob-
jects, signals, events, structures, which are considered
topologically external to the object, and are linked to
the object in terms of a structure, relations between
their attributes”. Briefly, a system can be defined as
a relationship mapped over a set of objects in an en-
compassing environment (Simpson and Dagli, 2008).
Many definitions of a SoS exist. An aggregate of
systems leads to the creation of new forms of sys-
tems which may be either described within the frame-
work of composite systems, or demonstrate additional
features which add complexity to the description and
may be referred to as System of Systems. We can
summarize the definitions mentioned in literature as
the following:
Definition (i): Systems of Systems exist when
there is a presence of a majority of the following
five characteristics: operational and managerial inde-
pendence, geographic distribution, emergent behav-
ior, and evolutionary development (Jamshidi, 2011).
Definition (ii): Systems of Systems are large-
scale concurrent and distributed systems that are com-
prised of complex systems (Jamshidi, 2011) (Carlock
and Fenton, 2001).
Definition (iii): Enterprise Systems of Systems
Engineering is focused on coupling traditional sys-
tems engineering activities with enterprise activities
of strategic planning and investment analysis (Car-
lock and Fenton, 2001).
Definition (iv): System of Systems Integration is
a method to pursue development, integration, interop-
erability, and optimization of systems to enhance per-
formance in future battlefield scenarios (Carlock and
Fenton, 2001).
Definition (v): System of systems is a collec-
tion of task-oriented or dedicated systems that pool
their resources and capabilities together to obtain a
new, more complex, ’meta-system’ which offers more
functionality and performance than simply the sum of
the constituent systems (Manthorpe, 1996).
KMIS 2015 - 7th International Conference on Knowledge Management and Information Sharing
194
Definition (vi): System of systems is a set of dif-
ferent elements connected or related so as to perform
a unique function not performable by the elements
alone (Rechtin and Maier, 2000).
In the light of the mentioned definitions we can
describe the notion of System of Systems (SoS) as
the following; Systems of systems are large-scale in-
tegrated systems which are heterogeneous and inde-
pendently operable on their own, but are networked
together for a common goal. The goal, as mentioned
before, may be cost, performance, robustness, etc. In
other terms, A System of Systems is a super system
comprised of other elements which themselves are in-
dependent complex operational systems and interact
among themselves to achieve a common goal. Each
element of a SoS achieves well-substantiated goals
even if they are detached from the rest of the SoS.
3.2 System of Systems Versus
Composite Systems
The definitions listed in the previous section are
mostly descriptive, but they capture crucial features
of what a generic definition should involve; however,
they do not answer the question, why is this new no-
tion different than that of composite systems? The
distinctive feature of the notion of System of Systems
(SoS) is that it is considered as an evolution of the
standard notion in engineering of Composite Systems
(CoS) (Sage and Cuppan, 2001) (Karcanias, 2008).
Developing the transition from CoS to SoS we
need to identify the commonalities and differences
between the two notions. We note:
Both CoS and SoS are compositions of simpler
objects, or systems.
Both CoS and SoS are embedded in the environ-
ment of a larger system.
The objects, or sub-systems in CoS do not have
their independent goal, they are not autonomous
and their behavior is subject to the rules of the
interconnection topology.
The interconnection rule in CoS is expressed as a
graph topology.
The subsystems in SoS may have their own goals
and some of them may be autonomous, semi-
autonomous, or organized as autonomous group-
ings of composite systems.
There may be a connection rule expressed as a
graph topology for the information structures of
the subsystems in a SoS.
The SoS is linked to an environment where every
subsystem enters as an agent with their indi-
vidual Operational Set, Goals.
The evolution of SoS and its ability to solve prob-
lems which cannot be addressed by the traditional
view of CoS comes from these three major factors:
Autonomy: the systems involved in SoS are at
least partially autonomous
Local views: no system has a full global view of
the SoS.
Decentralization: there is no designated single
controlling system, but decision and information
gathering is distributed.
4 SYSTEM OF INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
In this section we propose a new system that com-
bines the services from different Information Sys-
tems. First, we are going to define our new system
as a System of Information Systems (SoIS). Then, we
are going to present a generic architecture of the SoIS.
Finally we propose an initial design for the SoIS that
can serve as an example of the architecture.
4.1 Definition
The notion of System of Information Systems is de-
fined by (Carlsson and Stankiewicz, 1991) as “net-
works of agents interacting in a specific technology
area under a particular institutional infrastructure for
the purpose of creating, diffusing, and utilizing tech-
nology focused on knowledge, information, and com-
petence flow. (Breschi and Malerba, 1996) describe
SoIS as “the specific clusters of the firms, technolo-
gies, and industries involved in the generation and dif-
fusion of new technologies and in the knowledge flow
that takes place among them.
Based on the definitions provided we can summa-
rize the features of SoIS as follows:
SoIS addresses the impact of the interrelation-
ships between different SoS.
SoIS is concerned with the flow of information
and knowledge among different information sys-
tems.
SoIS is responsible for generating information
from the emergent SoS.
Information interoperability is a key issue when
designing a SoIS.
Information Systems: Towards a System of Information Systems
195
Figure 1: Architectural model of the SoIS.
4.2 Architecture
In this part we are going to present the generic ar-
chitecture of the SoIS. As seen in (Fig. 1), the SoIS
will be able to connect to several Information Systems
(System A, System B etc.). These systems are work-
ing separately. Each of which has its own services
and databases. Introducing new services to these In-
formation systems can be carried out by the SoIS.
These new services follow the MEMORAe approach.
As defined by (Ala Atrash, 2014), MEMORAe ap-
proach is to manage heterogeneous information re-
sources within organizations. The approach is com-
prised of a semantic model (called MEMORAe-core
2) and a web platform (called MEMORAe) which is
based on the semantic model. The model and the plat-
form make together a support to enhance the process
of resources management. The purpose behind intro-
ducing MEMORAe approach to the SoIS is to provide
the added value for other systems comprising the SoIS
by the resources management means of MEMORAe.
In general, the SoIS is represented as a group of
services and a database. The database will hold infor-
mation about the users’ account for the different In-
formation Systems comprising the SoIS. On the other
hand, the services residing in the SoIS can either be
directed to add systems to the orchestration, or emerg-
ing services created from the aggregation of different
Information Systems with the MEMORAe approach.
In addition, the two headed arrows linking the SoIS
with the Information systems represent information
path between the SoIS and the different Information
Systems.
4.3 Example
As mentioned earlier, the SoIS is composed of several
Information Systems. In this part we will take four In-
formation Systems to create a SoIS from them by fol-
lowing the architecture presented earlier in (Fig. 1).
These systems are Twitter, Semantic Hashtag, DBpe-
dia, and MEMORAe. First we will take a look at
each of these systems separately and highlight their
functionality as independent systems, before unveil-
ing their role as parts of the SoIS.
Twitter: Its characteristics are the short messages
that people can post to the system. With a maximum
of 140 characters users may transcribe immediate in-
formation. These messages are called “tweets” and
the novel expression “to tweet” stands for posting a
message on Twitter. Originally used for exchang-
ing ordinary information, Twitter is also used during
political campaigns or political debates, for business
communication (Zhao and Rosson, 2009).
In Twitter people update their activities with
friends simply sending text messages, sometimes en-
riched with photos, links and hash tags. The # sym-
bol, is used to mark keywords or topics in a Tweet. It
was created organically by Twitter users as a way to
categorize messages (Potts et al., 2011). The hashtag
is used to categorize tweets and help users to search
more easily in Twitter search. Hash-tagged words that
KMIS 2015 - 7th International Conference on Knowledge Management and Information Sharing
196
become very popular are often trending topics.
Semantic Hashtag (Lai et al., 2013): The web
interface of this system provides an input box for
writing the text of the tweet. The user may input a
free text as in usual Twitter clients. The constraint
of 140 characters is handled by a counter. In addi-
tion to the free text, a driven process allows to in-
sert one or more semantic hashtags. For this purpose
the user inserts a meaningful keyword concerning the
text of the tweet. Such a keyword is used to discover
within a knowledge base the identifiers of resources
associated to the keyword itself. In this prototype
we use the knowledge base available in the DBpedia
project (Auer et al., 2007), the semantic web mirror
of Wikipedia (Wikipedia, 2015). DBpedia provides a
web service called Lookup Service3. The service dis-
covers and returns DBpedia URIs from related key-
words and concerning the resources contained in the
DBpedia knowledge base.
MEMORAe: As defined by (Ala Atrash, 2014),
MEMORAe approach is to manage heterogeneous in-
formation resources within organizations. The ap-
proach is comprised of a semantic model (called
MEMORAe-core 2) and a web platform (called
MEMORAe) which is based on the semantic model.
The model and the platform make together a support
to enhance the process of organizational learning.
The MEMORAe project uses the Semantic Web
standards, therefore, the ontologies occurring in the
system are written in OWL. Users registered in the
MEMORAe system can access one or more knowl-
edge bases. When a base is chosen, a user can view a
semantic map of concepts related to the selected base.
Then, a user can create and share resources around the
concepts of the map.
After being introduced to the components of our
SoIS, let us take a look at the first draft of these Infor-
mation Systems working together as SoIS.
First we are going list down the important services
provided by each system. This list is available in (Ta-
ble. 1).
After listing down all key services from the Infor-
mation Systems under study, we can write down the
list of service we expect to have by aggregating those
systems in SoIS. The list of services available by the
SoIS is present in (Table. 2).
To better understand the functionalities of this
SoIS, we can start by explaining how the applica-
tion Semantic Hashtag works. This application allows
users to create semantic tweets. In more details, the
user may input a free text as in usual Twitter clients.
The constraint of 140 characters is handled by the ap-
plication. In addition to the free text, a driven pro-
cess allows to insert one or more semantic hashtags.
For this purpose the user inserts a meaningful key-
word concerning the text of the tweet. This keyword
is used to discover the identifiers of resources associ-
ated to the keyword itself. The application uses the
ontology provided by DBpedia. The semantic hash-
tag is created from the ontology URI related to the se-
lected resource and automatically inserted in the text
of the tweet (X). An added value can be achieved by
allowing the semantic hashtag to use ontologies other
than the one provided by Dbpedia. In other words,
to expand the scope of the semantic hashtag applica-
tion to knowledge base systems other than DBpedia.
In addition, we might also think of allowing the in-
formation shared by Twitter as tweets to be indexed
semantically in a knowledge base system.
The idea behind our work is as follows; we intend
to design a system that combines services from other
systems providing an added value for users. This
added value could not be obtained when the intended
systems were performing separately. There is Twitter
that allows us to share resources as tweets. Also, there
is the Semantic Hashtag system that allows users to
create tweets with semantic hashtags created using a
knowledge base available by DBpedia. We also have
MEMORAe, a web application that goes beyond sim-
ple content management system, and allows users to
index resources semantically over a map of concepts.
The scenario we propose is of a system that allows
users to create tweets with semantic hashtag from the
knowledge base available in both DBpedia and MEM-
ORAe and be able to index the tweets semantically in
MEMORAe.
The mockup design of the SoIS is shown in
(Fig. 2). In this illustration we can easily see the
simplicity in design in order to make user experience
friendly and pleasant. We can note the following fea-
tures available in this design:
The user will be provided with login credentials
to access the SoIS interface.
On the left panel, the user can manage the dif-
ferent accounts for the different Information Sys-
tems available in the SoIS. At this point the user
can access both his/her Twitter and MEMORAe
accounts.
On the middle top panel we can see the module
from the Semantic Hashtag application where the
user is able to create text tweets with semantic
hashtags. These semantic hashtags can be either
generated from the knowledge base available in
DBpedia or MEMORAe. Here we note an added
value as the users of the Semantic Hashtag appli-
cation were able to generate the hashtags seman-
tically from DBpedia only.
Information Systems: Towards a System of Information Systems
197
Table 1: Available services in the Information Systems comprising the SoIS.
Twitter
(System A)
Semantic Hashtag
(System B)
MEMORAe
(System C)
DBPedia
(System D)
Available
Services
Share information as
tweet
Post on Twitter Capitalize knowledge Capitalize knowledge
Add hashtag to tweets
Use Semantic Hashtags from
DBPedia in tweets
Index resources by a
semantic map
Lookup Service
View Twitter feed
View the description of the
semantic hashtag
On the middle bottom panel we can view Twitter
feed from the users Twitter account.
On the right panel the user can use MEMORAe
to index and store tweets semantically. The user
can select a concept from his/her MEMORAe ac-
count and a sharing space to make this tweet avail-
able by it. Then the user can index the selected
tweet according to the selected concept and shar-
ing space. This is also an added value to the SoIS,
as users were not able to index tweets in MEMO-
RAe before.
Next we are going to present a simple scenario to
create a semantic hashtag using the knowledge base
from MEMORAe in the SoIS. We will use standard
UML sequence diagram to represent the sequence of
actions taking place to perform this service in the
SoIS. Sequence diagrams are good means to represent
interactions in such complex systems as mentioned by
(Majd Saleh, 2015). The sequence diagram is shown
in (Fig. 3).
Figure 2: Example of the SoIS.
5 DISCUSSION
In the previous section we presented the SoIS with
an example that will grant users access to various In-
formation Systems from a single interface. The ques-
tions here are: Can we add more Information Systems
Table 2: Available services in the SoIS.
System of Information Systems
(System A+B+C+D)
Available
Services
Add accounts
(Twitter and MEMORAe for starter)
Use Semantic Hashtags
from DBPedia orMEMORAe in tweets
View Twitter feed
View the description of the semantic
hashtag other resources indexed by
to this SoIS? Is it limited to these Information Sys-
tems only?
To answer those questions we can look at the func-
tionality that allows us to generate semantic hashtags
and post them on Twitter. At first, the user was able
to create semantic hashtag from the knowledge base
provided by DBpedia. This functionality was made
available by DBpedia system through the lookup ser-
vice that allows searching its knowledge base using
keywords, therefore, returning results corresponding
to those keywords. In this SoIS we were able expand
this functionality and allow users to search MEMO-
RAes knowledge base through a similar lookup ser-
vice made available by MEMORAe. In such man-
ner, we can include other Information Systems to the
searchable knowledge base if they provide such ser-
vice. Furthermore, the SoIS provide the function-
ality of indexing tweets in MEMORAe. The nu-
merous types of resources handled by MEMORAe,
varying from documents, notes, and forum entry to
even weblinks, allows it index almost any resource we
can think of. For example, we might consider using
MEMORAe in this SoIS to index users emails from
an email system or calendar entry from his/her agenda
application. In this manner, the SoIS can grow to han-
dle new Information Systems as the need to use such
systems grows. However, we discussed the expan-
sion of the architecture presented earlier to accept new
Information Systems, but what about including other
SoS and SoIS to be part of a greater SoIS. This raises
the concern of whether to include a SoIS as a whole
in a more encompassing SoIS, or only include parts of
it as separate Information Systems. We can argue that
our architecture permit the SoIS to include services
KMIS 2015 - 7th International Conference on Knowledge Management and Information Sharing
198
Figure 3: Sequence diagram for creating semantic hashtage using the knowledge base from MEMORAe and DBpedia.
from many Information Systems. In such manner, we
could consider the composite SoIS as a whole to be
part of an encompassing SoIS, or only include parts
of it as separate Information Systems.
It is also worth mentioning that the new SoIS pre-
sented in this paper can be compared to other SoS in
the market. For example, we can take the Paraimpu
SoS (Paraimpu, 2015). Paraimpu is a social tool with
the aim to allow people to connect, compose and share
things, services and devices to create personalized ap-
plications on Internet (of Things). It allows the user to
create Sensors, Actuators and Connections between
them in the Paraimpu workspace. The Connection
can be configured in relation to different scenarios.
These Sensors and Actuators represent different sys-
tems coming together in Paraimpu SoS to provide
new services to users based on the connection cre-
ated between them. A scenario might be where the
user add a “Mount Washington Wind Speed Sensor”,
which, every 30 minutes, measures the wind speed
in that world location, where the biggest wind speed
was ever measured. Then, the user adds a “Twitter
Actuator”. Finally the user connects the Sensor to the
Twitter Actuator. The connection will be configured
in order to post a tweet under certain conditions based
on the Sensors readings. The design of this SoS is
simple, where you have separate panels for Sensors,
Actuators, and connections. The user can drag and
drop the components to create connections between
various systems and make benefit from their interac-
tions. In a similar way, our SoIS is design with sim-
plicity in mind to give users the ability to interact with
different Information Systems and benefit from their
interactions for an added value not present when those
systems were operating separately.
6 CONCLUSION
Our goal was to take current Information Systems
and move towards System of Information Systems
(SoIS) to aggregate services and exchange informa-
tion with simplicity and ease. To achieve this goal
we undertake this research to determine what is cur-
rently known about Information Systems, System of
Systems, and System of Information Systems in the
literature, and deploy this knowledge to propose an
example of a SoIS composed of various Information
Systems. First, we proposed a use case scenario to
illustrate the need of such SoIS. Then we defined the
notion of SoS and highlighted the differences between
SoS and CoS to make it clear that the new system can
be considered a SoS not a CoS. After that, we moved
forward to define the notion of SoIS and describe the
various Information Systems comprising this SoIS.
Finally, we proposed an example of a SoIS.
We found potential to the SoIS to expand and
hold new Information Systems. It was also clear that
combining services from various Information Sys-
tems will result in an added value to users not present
when those systems were operating separately. The
example of the SoIS is also found to be similar in
comparison to other SoS in this field.
The next step is to expand our work and introduce
new Information Systems to the SoIS based on the
example presented in this study and users needs. It
Information Systems: Towards a System of Information Systems
199
should also be tested in a real world experiment. The
SoIS should keep simple interface, with all the ser-
vices as far from the user as a single click, to keep the
users experience useful and friendly.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project is done under ECOPACK project and
funded by ANR-ASTRID programme.
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