Measuring the Velocity of Elementary Particles

Fundamental Physics in Schools by Remote Learning

Luigi Benussi

, Stefano Bianco

, Franco L. Fabbri

, Paola Gianotti

, Andrea Lalli

1,4

Antonio Paolozzi

2,3

, Claudio Paris

3,2

, Luciano Passamonti

, Davide Piccolo

, Daniele Pierluigi

Guido Raffone

, Alessandro Russo

and Giovanna Saviano

1,4

INFN - Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati, Via E. Fermi 40, 00044 Frascati, Italy

Scuola di Ingegneria Aerospaziale, Sapienza University of Rome, Via Salaria 851, 00138 Rome, Italy

Museo Storico della Fisica e Centro Studi e Ricerche Enrico Fermi, Via Panisperna 89/a, 00184 Rome, Italy

DICMA, Sapienza University of Rome, Via Eudossiana 18, 00184 Rome, Italy

Keywords:

Elementary Particles, Muons, Fundamental Physics, Measurements, Remote e-Learning.

Abstract:

Teaching of modern physics requires nuclear and particle detectors that are not always available to high school

audiences. A system which allows the measurement of the speed of muon particles detected in cosmic rays is

presented. The system was setup at Frascati National Labs of the Italian Institute of Nuclear Physics (INFN)

and is being used for hands-on teaching. The system is being upgraded for operation in fully remote control

thus enabling e-learning capabilities to a much wider target audience.

1 INTRODUCTION

Experimental experiences on modern physics are of

paramount importance to teach at pre-university level,

and in general to increase the awareness of a young

audience towards the value of fundamental research.

Most of the experimental activities concerning nu-

clear and particle physics, however, make use of in-

strumentation not easily available to average high

schools, although important programmes are being

successfully pursued in Italy and elsewhere (Abbres-

cia, M. et al., 2013).

After an overview on cosmic rays and muon par-

ticles, the experimental setup is described in its hard-

ware and software components. Finally, prospects are

discussed on the planned upgrade towards fully re-

mote control capabilities to enable e-learning.

2 THE MUON, ELECTRON’S

HEAVY BROTHER

The Standard Model describes Nature as composed

of particles and forces (Figure 1). The base hypoth-

esis is that to describe Nature the following compo-

nents are necessary and sufﬁcient: quarks and leptons

(organized in three families), the carriers of the four

forces, and the Higgs boson.

The muon belongs to the lepton family and has the

same properties of the electron, but with a mass 200

times larger. Muons are very important since their

detection allowed the Higgs boson to be discovered in

2012 by the CMS and ATLAS experiments operating

at the LHC collider of CERN, Geneva (Switzerland).

3 COSMIC RAYS

Muons are abundantly produced by primary cosmic

rays interacting Earth’s atmosphere (Figure 2).

Primary cosmic rays are high-energy particles of

extra-terrestrial origin (from stars, black holes, neu-

tron stars, the Sun, etc) which travel at a speed very

close to the speed of light, and hit the Earth’s atmo-

sphere.

Most of primary cosmic rays are atomic nuclei,

but electrons, positrons and other elementary particles

are also present. At sea level, most of the cosmic rays

are muons produced by the interaction of primary cos-

mic rays with the atoms of the atmosphere. The aver-

258

Benussi, L., Bianco, S., Fabbri, F., Gianotti, P., Lalli, A., Paolozzi, A., Paris, C., Passamonti, L., Piccolo, D., Pierluigi, D., Raffone, G., Russo, A. and Saviano, G.

Measuring the Velocity of Elementary Particles - Fundamental Physics in Schools by Remote Learning.

In Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Computer Supported Education (CSEDU 2016) - Volume 2, pages 258-264

ISBN: 978-989-758-179-3

Figure 1: The Standard Model of forces and elementary par-

ticles (courtesy of Fermilab).

age rate of muons at sea level is:

= 100 s

−1

−2

(1)

while the average momentum is:

= 2 GeV /c (2)

The muon has a mass:

= (105.698389 ± 0.000034)MeV /c

(3)

thus yielding a relativistic β factor

= v

∼

0.9986 (4)

The muon in cosmic rays detected at sea level, there-

fore, has speed very close to the speed of light. The

setup described utilizes techniques used in modern

high energy physics experiments to measure with

suitable precision very high particle speeds.

The study of cosmic rays have many implications

from practical to theoretical. From an engineering

point of view we just remind that all the instruments

operating at high altitude such as satellite payloads

are more likely to have some circuits to undergo a

change of state due to the larger ﬂux at higher alti-

tude. Those changes are well known to happen in

a micro-electronic component and typically produce

a temporary change of state (single event upset) or

more serious permanent changes (single event latchup

or burnout) when an incoming cosmic ray interact

with the electronic unit. Therefore the knowledge of

the cosmic ray ﬂux is important for the electronic de-

sign and to provide information on how to counteract

the negative action of high energy particles. Also of

great concern is the amount of radiation absorption

by an astronaut in an interplanetary ﬂight. The radi-

ation dose that would be absorbed is in fact a signiﬁ-

cant obstacle to human Mars exploration. Also in this

case the study of the long term cosmic ray ﬂux is of

paramount importance. There are a number of ground

based as well as balloon and space borne experiments

devoted to the study of cosmic rays. We mention

the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS) launched

on May 2011 and still operating on the International

Space Station. It is the largest particle detector or-

biting the Earth and has, as main objectives to search

for antimatter, dark matter and strangelets (a new hy-

pothetical form of matter obtained with a combina-

tion of quark up, down and strange - see Figure 1 for

the quark classiﬁcation). The high precision required

for the detectors called for special studies on the sta-

bility of the mechanical behaviour of the subsystems

(Cusano et al., 2006) and for proposals to use a real

time position monitoring (Benussi et al., 2003; Be-

nussi et al., 2007).

4 MUON DETECTORS IN

HIGH-ENERGY PHYSICS

The INFN Frascati group and associated collaborators

from University of Rome La Sapienza have a deep

experience in design, testing, construction, commis-

sioning and operation of muon detectors, with the lat-

est application being the muon detector using Resis-

tive Plate Counters (Colafranceschi et al., 2014) and

Gas Electron Multipliers (Abbaneo et al., 2014a) in

the CMS experiment at the LHC hadron collider of

CERN. Particular care was needed in monitoring gas

composition and quality (Abbrescia et al., 2008), so

that a gas gain monitoring system was devised (Be-

nussi et al., 2009) and tested (Colafranceschi et al.,

2010). Also the possibility of purifying and ﬁltering

the gas mixture was experimentally veriﬁed (Benussi

et al., 2012). Muon detectors using gas are conse-

quently very efﬁcient and precise for both space and

time measurements, but besides gas quality control

require also careful tuning and monitoring (Abbaneo

et al., 2014b; Benussi et al., 2015; Colafranceschi

et al., 2013). For this application, a much simpler

technique was chosen which utilizes plastic scintilla-

tor counters. Scintillation counters do provide suit-

able efﬁciency and precision for the measurement

aimed to.

Measuring the Velocity of Elementary Particles - Fundamental Physics in Schools by Remote Learning

259

Figure 2: Production of cosmic rays at Earth level following interaction of primary cosmic rays on the atmosphere (courtesy

of CERN).

5 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

The experimental setup (Figure 3 and Figure 4) is

composed of two scintillation counters which provide

fast electronic signals when crossed by a cosmic ray

muon. The distance between counters (L) can be ad-

justed from 10 cm to 4 m. The speed of the muon

crossing both counters is measured by measuring the

interval of crossing times ∆t.

An exploded view of one scintillation counter is

shown in Figure 5. The charged particle crossing the

plastic scintillator plate produces a tiny ﬂuorescence

light which travels to a clear plastic lightguide and

is funnelled to a photomultiplier tube (PMT) which

converts the light pulse to an electrical pulse. Both

PMT and voltage divider are located inside an iron

case (not shown) for electrical, light and terrestrial

magnetic ﬁeld shielding.

The setup is composed of:

• two scintillator detectors (each composed of a

30x30x0.5 cm

NE110 plastic scintillator, a 22 cm

plexiglass lightguide, a Philips 56AVP PMT pro-

vided with a high voltage divider);

• NIM crate, housing discriminator (CAEN mod.

411), logical coincidence unit (CAEN mod. 455),

scaler counter (CAEN mod. 145), programmable

high voltage supplies (CAEN mod. 470), pro-

grammable delay unit (mod.CAEN 108);

• CAMAC crate, housing Status A module (CAEN

mod. 236), Time-to-Digital (TDC) Converter

(LeCroy mod. 2228), SCSI interface to PC moni-

CSEDU 2016 - 8th International Conference on Computer Supported Education

260

Figure 3: Experimental setup: adjustable distance scintil-

lation counters, lightguides, photomultiplier, high-voltage

supply and signal cables.

Figure 4: Principle of measurement of cosmic ray muon

speed.

Figure 5: Exploded view of one of scintillation counters and

readout electronics.

toring and control;

• PC software for data acquisition (LabVIEW).

A block diagram of the setup is reported in Figure 6.

Scintillation detectors are set at an adjustable dis-

tance L. A cosmic ray muon crossing the scintilla-

tor produces a ﬂuorescence light pulse converted to

electric pulse by the PMT. The PMT signal, once dis-

criminated and converted to digital, is delayed (200

ns for upper PMT and 100 ns for lower PMT). The

two signals are fed to the coincidence unit which per-

forms a logic AND operation. This selection is neces-

sary to select the particle crossing both detectors, and

rejecting crossing due to two particles. The coinci-

dence unit has three outputs. OUT1 is sent to a scaler

counter, OUT2 to the Status A module, OUT3 to the

common start input of the TDC. The common stop

input of TDC is fed by the lower PMT signal. Both

TDC and Status A are readout by the PC via SCSI

interface.

6 REMOTE E-LEARNING

The system can be accessed remotely so that it will

allow the students to verify the existence of cosmic

rays. The students will connect either remotely to the

experiment console via a Virtual Network Comput-

ing (VNC) software so that they will have access to

the experiment. By managing the privileges it will

be possible to give the students the possibility either

to govern the experiment or simply to watch the re-

mote computer console. The teacher will guide them

through a webcam connection. Webcam can also be

used to show the detector and the relevant electronics.

The teacher will start with the observation that there

are entities which leave a signal on the detector and

that the theoretical physicists in the recent past, taking

into account the many subatomic particles produced

in several other experiments, organized them in the

very elegant reduced set of particles called the stan-

dard model. Later going more in depth into the topic,

he will describe the particles that are actually travers-

ing the detector by introducing the property of the

muons and by illustrating the way they are originated

in the upper atmosphere by the primary cosmic rays.

The short lifetime of muons (microseconds), that are

generated in the upper atmosphere, would not allow

them to reach the ground according to Galilei-Newton

mechanics, because in few microseconds, even light

will travel only about 1 km. Checking experimen-

tally, with the devise described above, that the speed

of muons is very close to the speed of light, will allow

the teacher to touch the concept of Special Relativity.

In fact according to that theory, time is relative to the

observer and is not an absolute quantity, so for the

muons moving very fast, time ﬂows differently and

that allow them to reach the ground and thus being

Measuring the Velocity of Elementary Particles - Fundamental Physics in Schools by Remote Learning

261

Figure 6: Block diagram of experimental setup.

observed by our detector.

From a technological point of view it is also of in-

terest the working principle of the detectors and of the

measurement chain used in the set-up described. Ex-

plaining the detectors will provide the opportunity to

extend the concept of observation that, for extremely

small entities, changes signiﬁcantly. The biggest par-

ticle detectors are mounted on the LHC ring at CERN

and they can be considered the most powerful micro-

scopes because they allow to explore far beyond than

any electron microscope can reach. Furthermore, for

students in informatics, it can be shown how particle

physics laboratory have to manage the huge amount

of information derived, for instance, by the products

of collisions of protons inside the colliders such as

LHC at CERN. From that data analysis it was possi-

ble to observe the Higgs boson which by the way, as

mentioned earlier, was observed thanks to its decay

products that were muons.

7 CONCLUSIONS

A system is in operation at Frascati National Labs of

INFN for the measurement of speed of muon particles

in cosmic rays. The measurement is targeted to an

audience of high school level students and teachers.

The present setup is able to collect and analyse data.

Data Analysis includes the optimization and tuning of

detectors, full statistical treatment of results including

the evaluation of statistical and systematic errors. The

remotization of controls and data acquisition of the

system is being pursued. Once operationally remo-

tized, the system will provide remote e-learning of a

real measurement of elementary particles fundamen-

tal properties such as their speed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to thank the Istituto Nazionale di

Fisica Nucleare (INFN) for the support provided to

the present research.

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