The Effect of Menstrual Cycle Phases on Vertical Jump Kinematics
and Kinetics in Elite Athletes
Ruaibah Yazani Tengah
1
, Ashril Yusof
2
, and Abd. Halim Mokhtar
2
1
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia
2
Universiti Malaya, Malaysia
ruaibah@fsskj.upsi.edu.my
Keywords: Menses, Hormonal Responses, Power, Strength, Force, Velocity.
Abstract: Understanding the effect of menstrual cycle on kinematics and kinetics of exercise performance is important
in the sense that menstrual cycle disrupts the hormonal balance of athletes. Changes in hormonal balance
might affect exercise performance, and thus might affect longitudinal adaptations which occur from training,
and also with biomechanical changes which increase the likelihood of injury. Twelve well trained elite female
athletes voluntarily participated in this study. Thirteen kinematic and kinetic variables were measured via
force platform during a counter movement jump exercise. Three variables namely peak power (p = 0.030),
mean power (p = 0.010) and peak velocity (p = 0.016) were significantly differed (p < 0.05) across the three
menstrual cycle phases, where a reduction was clearly observed during the menses phase. Based on the results,
menses phase was detrimental to exercise performance that requires explosive power component for elite
level athletes. Thus, training with aims and goals of developing explosive power adaptation is not
recommended to be carried out by elite athletes during their menses, with change of strategy during
competition is suggested when a decrease in explosive power output might impair related sports specific
performance. As a conclusion, athletes’ menstrual cycle process should be monitored closely with training
and competition for performance purposes as well as for injury prevention.
1 INTRODUCTION
Sports performance particularly relies a lot on
strength and power capabilities of the athletes to
sprint faster (Cronin et.al, 2007; Delecluse et.al,
1995), jump higher (Cormie, et.al, 2010), minimize
the movement metabolic requirement (Storen, et.al,
2008) and improve other functional capabilities
(Harris, et.al, 2000). It is worth to note that a decrease
or an increase of muscle performance depends on
many factors which include, hormonal, metabolic and
neural factor.
Menstrual cycle phase experienced by the female
athletes caused continuous changes in hormone
concentration (Lebrun & Rumball, 2001) and thus
might alter the hormonal stimulus secreted and
received during the strength training session, which
might affect exercise performance. There have been
many studies that have investigated the effect of
menstrual cycle on human sports and exercise
performance (Di Brezzo Fort, & Brown, 1991; de
Jonge, 2003; Petrofsky, et.al, 1976; Sarwar, et.al,
1996; Sung, et.al, 2014; Gil, 2017; Pallavi, et.al,
2017). Certain phases of menstrual cycle have been
identified to increase risk of anterior cruciate
ligament injury (Abt, Sell, et.al, 2007). This is not
surprising as menses is a disruption to hormonal
activities (Oosthuyse, & Bosch, 2010) and changes in
hormonal function might affect physical activities
performance. Female sex hormones fluctuation
during the menstrual cycle is reported to have
significant effects on the neuromuscular system
(Hewett, 2000; Ekenros, et.al, 2017). On the other
hand, few studies performed on recreationally trained
athletes or non-athletics population indicated that
there were no significant differences on the
neuromuscular performance during menstrual phases
(Di Brezzo, et.al, 1994; Lebrun, et.al, 1995; Bennal,
et.al, 2016). At present, little data is available
regarding the effect of menstrual cycle on exercise
performance in elite athletes. Other findings suggest
that hormonal fluctuations due to menstrual cycle
phases do not interfere with maximal intensity whole
body sprinting and the metabolic responses to such
exercise (Tsampoukos, et.al, 2010). Since the finding
remains inconclusive, further investigation in this
area is needed. In term of team sports especially in
relation to match or game based sports such as hockey
334
Tengah, R., Yusof, A. and Mokhtar, A.
The Effect of Menstrual Cycle Phases on Vertical Jump Kinematics and Kinetics in Elite Athletes.
In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Sports Science, Health and Physical Education (ICSSHPE 2017) - Volume 1, pages 334-340
ISBN: 978-989-758-317-9
Copyright © 2018 by SCITEPRESS Science and Technology Publications, Lda. All rights reserved
matches, the ability to sustain high intensity
intermittent loads is believed to be crucial for the final
outcome of the match (Reilly & Borrie, 1992). As
mentioned earlier, strength and power will improve
functional performance during the games which will
contribute towards improving the physical
performance of the athletes. Vertical jump exercise is
one of the typically used exercises for strength and
power training and assessment (Tricoli, et.al, 2005;
Hanson, et.al, 2007; Hester, et.al, 2017). A decrease
in vertical jump’s kinematics and kinetics during
training might decrease overall performance
adaptation longitudinally. Therefore, the purpose of
this study was to identify the differences in vertical
jump kinematics and kinetics that might occur
between the menses, follicular phase and luteal phase
of the menstrual cycle among elite athletes.
2 METHODS
2.1 Experimental Approach to the
Problem
Acute randomized within-subjects cross-over design
was used in this study, where subjects were asked to
attend one familiarization and three testing sessions.
The subjects randomly performed the testing session
starting at different phases of the menstrual cycle
which includes i) Menses (Day 1 5); ii) Follicular
Phase (Day 6 -13); and, iii) Luteal Phase (Day 15 to
next cycle). This design allowed the subjects to
complete testing sessions within one menstrual cycle,
and some were allowed to carry over the testing
sessions into their next cycle. Two weeks before their
first testing session all subjects were asked to attend
a familiarization session at the Exercise Physiology
Laboratory, National Institute of Sports, Malaysia.
During the familiarization session, the subjects were
given briefings on exercise and experimental
protocols, procedures and exercise techniques.
2.2 Subjects
Twelve well trained elite female intermittent sport
athletes voluntarily participated in this study. All
subjects were elite athletes ranging from intermittent
sport athletes with the national team of Malaysia at
the time of the testing. Subjects’ selection criteria
were, aged between 18-28 years old with a maximum
oxygen uptake (O2max) of = 50 ml/kg/min, healthy
with no allergies, free of metabolic, cardiovascular or
respiratory diseases, nonsmokers and regular
menstrual cycles lasting 28 ± 2 days in duration (3
month monitoring of regularity). All subjects were
fully informed of the study’s purposes and possible
risks before signing a consent form. Subjects were
also told that they are free to withdraw at any stage of
the study without the obligation to give reasons. Prior
to commencing the study, approval was obtained
from the ethical committee of University of Malaya
and National Sports Council, Malaysia.
2.3 Equipment
Counter movement vertical jump was conducted on a
force plate (400 Series Performance Force Plate,
Fitness Technology, Australia) interfaced with
computer software (Ballistic Measurement System,
Fitness Technology, Australia) that allowed direct
measurements of displacement, force, velocity and
power variables. Data sampling rate was set at 200 Hz
with filter cut-off frequency rate of 10 Hz. Jump
height was estimated using the following equation [(h
= t2•g/8]. Where g is the gravitational acceleration
estimated at 9.81ms•-1 and is the flight time.
2.4 Procedures
Preliminary Assessments and Familiarization:
Subjects’ body height and weight were measured
after the briefing and their informed consent form
were collected. Subjects were then showed the
counter movement vertical jump technique, followed
by several trials of the jump by each of the subject on
the force plate. Improper technique was corrected and
the subjects performed several more trials until the
researcher was satisfied with the jump technique.
Verification of menstrual cycle phase: Menstrual
phases of each subject was verified using blood
samples to determine the level of estrogen,
progesterone, LH and FSH based on method by
(Kleiblova, et.al, 2006) along with basal body
temperature (BBT) charts (Guermandi, et.al, 2001).
2.4.1 Method
Counter movement vertical jump technique: The
counter movement vertical jump ready position was
standardized with subjects standing with the feet
approximately shoulder width apart and hands on
their hips. The jumps began with the subjects lowered
down their buttock, bend their knees to quarter-squat
position, and later immediately straighten the knee
with feet pushing the ground for their take-off. The
subjects were then considered had completed one
repetition of the jump when they landed with their
The Effect of Menstrual Cycle Phases on Vertical Jump Kinematics and Kinetics in Elite Athletes
335
hands still on their hip within the force plate area with
the knee again bend during the landing to absorb
impact. The subjects made another jump straight-
away until desired repetitions were achieved.
Testing procedures: The subjects were tested
randomly at different phases of their menstrual cycle.
Method of assessment was replicated as previously
described (Hespanhol, et.al, 2006) with all subjects
tested at similar time of the day for each testing
occasion. During each testing, the subjects performed
4 series of 15 seconds vertical counter-movement
jump (CMJ). All subjects started their testing session
with a standardized general warm-up and practiced
jumping several times until they were comfortable
and consistent with it. The subjects performed 4 trials
x 15 seconds maximum effort counter movement
vertical jumps. The subjects were instructed to jump
as high as possible on each of the single repetition,
with 10 seconds rest periods were given between each
trial. Each testing session ended with cooling down
and stretching exercises.
2.5 Data Analysis
The force plate measures all dependent variables of
interest at a sampling frequency of 200 Hz. Variables
of interest include peak force (N), mean force (N),
peak power (W), mean power (W), jump height (m),
peak distance (m), min distance (m), peak velocity
(m.s-1), min Velocity (m.s-1), jump repetition,
impulse at 100 (ms), 200 (ms) and 300 (ms) were
calculated for each set of the jumps involved via the
BMS software data analysis program. The variables
of interest in this study have been proven to be stable
within and between sessions (i.e. typical CV < 5%
and ICC~0.95).
2.6 Statistical Analysis
All data from variables of interest during the three
phases of menstrual cycle were analyzed using a
general linear model one way repeated measure
(ANOVA). A one sample Kolomogorov Smirnov test
was utilized to determine the normal distribution of
all variable. In the cases where a Mauchly’s test of
sphericity assumption was violated, the Greenhouse-
Geisser value was utilized to determine significance.
Further analyses using paired sample t test were used
to identify relative changes between menses versus
luteal phase and follicular phase versus menses. The
significance level of this study was set as p < 0.05.
3 RESULTS
3.1 Counter Movement Jump (CMJ)
Mean values SD) for thirteen selected kinematic
and kinetic components for CMJ performance during
different phases of the menstrual cycle are presented
in Table 1. Significant differences (p < 0.05) were
found in peak power, mean power and peak velocity
output between the three phases based on one way
repeated measure (ANOVA), while paired simple t
test indicated that the significant difference were
actually originated from the differences between
luteal phase and menses phase.
Table 1: Mean ± SD of counter movement jump performance during menstrual cycle phases. (Average of 4 trials x 15s counter
movement jump).
Variable (n=12)
Luteal Phase
Menses
Follicular Phase
P value
Mean ± SD
Mean ± SD
Mean ± SD
Peak Force (Newton)
1154.55 ± 114.79
1130.98 ± 130.20
1114.26 ± 102.08
0.4388
Mean Force (Newton)
863.41 ± 66.27
845.01 ± 69.12
841.10 ± 56.35
0.2027
Peak Power (Watts)
2880.88 ± 375.46
*
1952.30 ± 135.64
2069.25 ± 216.99
0.0304
Mean Power (Watts)
1087.24 ± 168.78
*
987.05 ± 91.81
1009.22 ± 98.37
0.0096
Jump Hight (m)
0.23 ± 0.02
0.22 ± 0.02
0.22 ± 0.03
0.0781
Peak Distance (m)
1.28 ± 1.55
0.50 ± 0.48
0.91 ± 0.87
0.1893
Min Distance (m)
0.14 ± 2.66
-1.38 ± 0.65
0.38 ± 0.82
0.2037
Peak Velocity (m.s
-1
)
2.39 ± 0.25
*
2.19. ± 0.14
2.31 ± 0.16
0.0160
Min Velocity (m.s
-1
)
-1.33 ± 0.25
-1.23 ± 0.37
-1.37 ± 0.19
0.4292
Jump Repetition
15.66 ± 0.9
15.62 ± 0.70
15.52 ± 1.3
0.7713
Impulse at 100 (ms)
95.92 ± 10.29
93.12 ± 9.20
92.08 ± 7.0
0.2200
Impulse at 200 (ms)
196.14 ± 21.98
191.02 ± 22.20
186.80 ± 21.31
0.2284
Impulse at 300 (ms)
285.96 ± 29.83
279.05 ± 29.13
273.62 ± 32.12
0.2378
*denotes significant difference between Luteal Phase vs Menses: p < 0.05
ICSSHPE 2017 - 2nd International Conference on Sports Science, Health and Physical Education
336
3.2 Peak power (W)
The analysis of variance for the peak power (W) is
shown in Table 1. The peak power (W) varied
significantly between the phases in the menstrual
cycle [F (2, 11) = 4.112, p < 0.05]. Pairwise
comparison showed that relative peak power (W)
responses were affected during M -LP than FP M.
3.3 Mean power (W)
The analysis of variance for the mean power (W) is
shown in Table 1. Mean power (W) was significantly
differed in three phases of menstrual cycle [F (2, 11)
= 5.784, p < 0.05]. Relative change of mean power
slightly decreased before menses (M LP) compared
to after menses (FP M).
3.4 Peak velocity (m.s-1)
The analysis of variance for the peak velocity (m.s-1)
is shown in Table 1. Peak velocity (m.s 1) was found
to be significantly differed between the phases of the
menstrual cycle [F (2, 11) = 5.020, p < 0.05]. Relative
change of peak velocity (m.s-1) was significantly
higher during LP M then FP M.
3.5 Estrogen / Progesterone Ratio
Mean values (± SD) of serum estrogen and
progesterone levels in the different phases of the
menstrual cycle for the 12 subjects are presented in
Table 2. Estrogen levels were low in the menses
phase and increased as expected in the luteal phase
and follicular phase. Progesterone levels increased in
the luteal phase compared to other phases.
Table 2: Mean values SD) of serum estrogen and
progesterone levels in the different phases of the menstrual
cycle.
Hormone
Luteal
phase
Menses
Estrogen
(pmol/I)
405.08 ±
232.27
*
158.58 ±
43.89
Progesterone
(nmol/I)
3.86 ± 2.7
*
1.94 ± 0.5
E/P Ratio
104.94
81.74
*denotes significant at luteal when compare with menses
with p < 0.05.
E=Estrogen; P= Progesterone.
3.6 Estrogen (pmol/I)
The estrogen level was significantly differed between
the phases of menstrual cycle, F (2, 22) = 7.246, p <
0.05].The estrogen level during luteal phase (405.08
± 232.27 pmol/I) was higher compared to menses
(158.58 ± 43.89 pmol/I) and follicular phase (255.50
± 118.08 pmol/I).
3.7 Progesterone (nmol/I)
The Progesterone level was significantly differed
between the phases of menstrual cycle, [F (2, 22) =
4.366, p < 0.05].The progesterone level during luteal
phase (3.86 ± 2.7 nmol/I) was higher compared to
menses (1.94 ± 0.5 nmol/I) and follicular phase (2.46
± 0.8 nmol/I).
4 DISCUSSION
The main aim of this study is to investigate how some
selected kinematics and kinetics were affected by
menstrual cycle phases, when performing acute
explosive anaerobic type activities such as the counter
movement jump among well trained elite athletes.
The most important finding is that significant
differences in peak power (W), mean power (W) and
peak velocity (m.s-1) between the three menstrual
cycle phases. Other variables measured such as peak
force (N), mean force (N), jump height (m), peak
distance (m), min distance (m), min velocity (m.s-1),
jump repetition, impulse at 100 (ms), impulse at 200
(ms) and impulse at 300 (ms) did not show any
difference during the menstrual cycle phases, which
confirmed what have been found by previous studies
(Friden, et.al, 2003).
Before further discussions are made on the key
findings of this study, several factors that might
influence the results obtained should also be noted.
First limiting factor that may affect the results of this
study is the timing of each testing with regards to the
day of the menstrual cycle phases. De Jonge (2003),
recommended that testing should be conducted on the
same day (i.e., 3rd day of LP, M and FP). However in
our study it was difficult to gather the subjects to be
tested on similar timing each of their menstrual cycle
phases. Thus, this might have some minor impact on
the results obtained, due to fluctuations in hormone
levels within each day of the menstrual phases
(Bambaeichi, et.al, 2004).). Although it was difficult
to gather elite athletes at one specific menses timing,
all subjects were tested at similar time of the day, to
The Effect of Menstrual Cycle Phases on Vertical Jump Kinematics and Kinetics in Elite Athletes
337
ensure minimal differences in the circadian
variations.
The second factor is the pulsatile secretion of
estrogen and progesterone. In order to minimize
inaccuracy that might be caused by higher secretion
due to exercise or time of the day, all subjects were
tested within the same time of the day as indicated
earlier. All testing’s were conducted at rest condition.
It has been reported that while the level of estrogen
might be similar between subjects, the progesterone
level might fluctuate and vary between subjects, and
thus may influence the physical exercise performance
(Bunt, 1990; de Jonge, 2003). Based on observation
made on both hormones secreted in this study (Table
2), fluctuations on the estrogen and progesterone ratio
during each testing period existed. Therefore this
result suggested that the changes in female steroid
hormones during the menstrual cycle may affect the
mechanical properties of human muscle and tendon.
A previous study had also found that muscle fiber
recruitment / motor unit activations were negatively
affected across menstrual cycle phase (Bambaeichi,
et.al, 2004).
The main findings of this study were reduction in
peak power, mean power and peak velocity during the
menses phase, and these findings are in agreement
with a number of previous studies (Friden, et.al, 2003;
Nicolay, et. al, 2007; Wojtys, et.al, 1998). However,
none of these cited studies used well-trained high
performance athletes as subjects. Thus, the present
study has shown that the well trained athletes also
reacted similarly as the untrained subjects in this
matter. Training status has previously been shown to
have an impact on power production ability and
utilization of muscle activities during explosive or
non-explosive anaerobic type of exercise or
movement (Pick & Becque, 2000) but this might
exclude female athletes with menses, in which their
training status might not made them ‘immune’
towards the effect of menstrual cycle on performance.
It could be suggested that, during training or
competition, athletes with menses should shift their
game play from relying more on power based
movement into skills or movement that requires less
of this, in order to maintain their typical performance.
This kind of change of strategy or skills used might
minimize the negative effect assaulted with menstrual
cycle experienced by the trained athletes. However,
this is far from definite and further studies are on the
way to elucidate this.
Soares, et.al, (2011) suggested that the behaviour
of the muscles in women presents different
characteristics during different phases of the
menstrual cycle, in particular, at the end of the luteal
phase. Findings of their study also supported what
have been found previously, that different
neuromuscular patterns were utilized when
performing jump sequence during different phase of
menses, as luteal phase has higher estrogen level
compared to during early follicular phase, which has
lower level of estrogen (Dedrick, et.al, 2008). Our
results also suggested that estrogen and progesterone
levels decreased during the menses phase in which
the reduction in peak power, mean power, and peak
velocity were observed.
Another explanation that may be considered for
the reduction in peak power, mean power and peak
velocity is pre-menstrual syndrome (PMS). PMS is
characterized by cyclical physical and mood
disturbance during the luteal phase, where severity of
the symptoms (i.e., pain) gradually increases during
the luteal phase and disappears a few days after onset
of menses (Friden, et.al, 2003). Giacomoni, et.al,
(2000) proposed that although there were no
significant differences in maximal anaerobic
performance during different menstrual cycle phases,
results of their study suggested that the presence or
absence of premenstrual or menstrual syndrome
symptoms may have an effect, possibly through an
action on the stretch shortening cycle of tendons and
ligaments. Research has provided strong evidence
that PMS symptoms are the result of an abnormal
response to normal levels of estrogen and
progesterone (Schmidt, et.al, 1998).
4.1 Practical Applications
Results of this study indicate the need of some
considerations to be taken when managing strength
and power training for female elite athletes especially
during their menses. While the findings of this study
is far from definite, coaches and athletes alike should
take into consideration to properly monitor female
elite athletes that need to perform explosive power
type of movement during training and competition.
Changes of strategies especially in sports with
explosive type of movement might be required in
order to ensure continuity of desirable peak
performance during competition. Training sessions
with an emphasis and goal on peak power output
should be adjourned to another day to ensure
maximum adaptations can take place longitudinally.
A proper monitoring system for female athletes
menstrual cycle process should also be a part of
conditioning training plans, should include both
performance related reasons and injury preventions.
However, the results obtained in this study still need
to be investigated further, especially by performing
ICSSHPE 2017 - 2nd International Conference on Sports Science, Health and Physical Education
338
longitudinal research and taking into accounts other
factors involved such as muscle activation, firing rate
and many more before firm conclusion can be
elucidated.
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