Privacy Compliant Multi-biometric Authentication
on Smartphones
Alexandre Ninassi, Sylvain Vernois and Christophe Rosenberger
Normandie Univ., UNICAEN, ENSICAEN, CNRS, GREYC, 14000 Caen, France
Keywords:
Authentication, Multi-biometrics, Biometric Template Protection.
Abstract:
Smartphones are more and more used by Internet users for different services such as social networks, e-
commerce or email. User authentication with passwords on such devices is not user-friendly and does not
offer a high security level for this task. Biometrics is becoming one popular solution to achieve this goal with
the embedding of fingerprint scanners in smartphones. In this paper, we propose a new protocol combining
fingerprint and behavioral biometrics to enhance the security of user authentication while preserving usability
and privacy. The behavior when entering a pattern based authentication on the smartphone touch screen is
considered as a fast and usable solution for users. We think the proposed multi-biometric solution offers great
advantages for many applications such as e-payment in terms of security, usability and privacy. We show
through experimental results the efficiency of the proposed method.
1 INTRODUCTION
User authentication with smartphones is more and
more envisaged for applications on the Internet and
electronic transactions. A recent survey in 2016
(Sukhraj, 2016) showed that over 50% of smartphone
users grab it immediately after waking up. As a smart-
phone embeds more and more personal information
(contacts, mail content, media . . . ) and is used as
preferred device to access distant services, a strong
authentication is necessary for logical access control.
PIN code authentication is a common solution on
smartphones. Even if this solution is simple, it does
not constitute a strong identity proof as anybody look-
ing at the user typing it could use it.
In order to solve this problem, biometrics is more
and more used to increase the level of confidence of
user authentication. Nevertheless, biometric data is
sensitive and requires a particular attention in terms
of security and privacy. Biometric data protection
should be realized during all the life cycle of the
data including the storage and the handling. Stan-
dard cryptography as symmetric encryption (or hash
functions) does not ensure the data protection dur-
ing the comparison step because two biometric data
from the same individual are not exactly identical.
Consequently, the comparison cannot be realized on
the encrypted/hashed domain. Several ways are pro-
posed to achieve the protection of biometric data, in-
cluding adapted cryptographic schemes (fuzzy com-
mitment, homomorphic encryption) (Juels and Wat-
tenberg, 1999; Barni et al., 2010) feature transfor-
mations (including the Biohashing algorithm) (Teoh
et al., 2004; Nagar et al., 2010). All these schemes
should ensure security, diversity and revocability of
the biometric data. We do not intend in this paper to
propose a new scheme for biometric template protec-
tion. For more details on these schemes, we refer the
reader to the detailed survey (Rathgeb and Uhl, 2011).
A biometric authentication is realized in two
steps: the enrollment and the verification phases. The
first one consists in generating the biometric reference
template of one user and to store it for further com-
parison. During verification, a query biometric tem-
plate is compared to the reference one for decision.
In order to enhance security of user authentication, it
is required in general to combine different authenti-
cation factors. This can be realized by using differ-
ent biometric data to define a multi-biometric system.
Note that Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA) Market
is expected to reach USD 9.60 Billion by 2020 (Mar,
2016).
The first contribution of this paper is to pro-
pose an efficient and usable multi-biometric system
to enhance the security of user authentication on
smartphones. We combine two biometric modalities
namely fingerprint and behavioral biometrics. We as-
sume in this work the used smartphone has a finger-
Ninassi, A., Vernois, S. and Rosenberger, C.
Privacy Compliant Multi-biometric Authentication on Smartphones.
DOI: 10.5220/0006534601730181
In Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Information Systems Security and Privacy (ICISSP 2018), pages 173-181
ISBN: 978-989-758-282-0
Copyright © 2018 by SCITEPRESS Science and Technology Publications, Lda. All rights reserved
173
print scanner. This hypothesis is realistic as a recent
survey estimates that 67% of smartphones in 2018
will have a fingerprint scanner (Statista, 2016). The
reference fingerprint template in such smartphones
is stored in a secure element to ensure its protec-
tion. Second, we use a behavioral biometric modality
with a template protection scheme: biometric pattern
drawn on a touch screen. This solution has the ad-
vantage to be very simple to use and very quick. The
biometric reference is stored in the smartphone as a
BioCode that can be canceled in case of attack. Ex-
periments are carried out on a home made chimeric
(own made) benchmark dataset with 34 users (finger-
print and biometric pattern) and show the benefit of
the proposed solution face to the literature.
This paper is organized as follows. Section 2 pro-
vides a literature review on existing solutions for user
authentication on smartphone. The proposed method
is described in Section 3. We present its general prin-
ciple of user, the concept of feature transformation
template protection schemes and the Biohashing al-
gorithm. The computation of biometric features from
pattern drawing is also described. Section 4 illustrates
through experimental results the benefit of the pro-
posed solution. Finally, we conclude and give some
perspectives in Section 5.
2 RELATED WORKS
Biometric based mobile authentication is an emerg-
ing issue, with increasing references in the literature.
The NIST report (Orandi and McCabe, 2009) de-
tails some recommendations concerning portable bio-
metric acquisition station and considers the following
modalities: fingerprint, face and iris. Most of papers
in the literature are devoted to a particular modality.
Researchers considered morphological modalities to
solve this issue. Face recognition is dealt with in the
paper (Hadid et al., 2007), along with eye detection,
or in (Choi et al., 2011), where a real time training
algorithm is developed for mobile devices. The au-
thors propose to extract local face features using some
local random bases and then to incrementally train a
neural network. Image processing also concerns hand
biometrics on mobile as in the reference (de Santos-
Sierra et al., 2011), where hand images are acquired
by a mobile device without any constraint in orienta-
tion, distance to camera or illumination. Other papers
(Clarke and Furnell, 2007; Changa et al., 2012) con-
sider keystroke dynamics based recognition. The first
paper makes a study about user identification using
keystroke dynamics-based authentication (KDA) on
mobile devices, relying on 11-digit telephone num-
bers and text messages as well as 4-digit PINs to clas-
sify users. Many papers propose to use touch screen
to capture biometric data (Sae-Bae et al., 2012). Most
of these studies use methods used for keystroke or sig-
nature dynamics. As for example, the notion of Tap-
Print has been proposed by Miluzzo et al. (Miluzzo
et al., 2012) where the concept of keystroke dynamics
is generalized to touch screen. The proposed method
is based on the location of the tap on the key asso-
ciated to a letter or by analyzing gyroscope informa-
tion. The system has been tested on 10 volunteers
with a total number of 40000 taps. The recognition
efficiency is between 80% and 90%. The work done
by Luca et al. (Luca et al., 2012) is very interesting
because it combines pattern based password and bio-
metrics. They proposed a system and test it with 34
users. Authors obtained a performance of 19% for
the FRR value (False Rejection Rate) and 21% for the
FAR (False Acceptance Rate). In 2013, a method has
been proposed (Beton et al., 2013) combining mul-
tiple information compared with the Pearson Corre-
lation and the Dynamic Time warping (DTW) meth-
ods. The equal error rate (EER) is near 17% which
is the best result for this biometric modality. Apart
from the literature dedicated to biometric solutions for
mobile authentication related to a specific modality,
some recent papers propose to use more than one bio-
metric modality (Alzubaidi and Kalita, 2016; Buriro,
2017). The work proposed in (Vildjiounaite et al.,
2006) combines the voice and accelerometer infor-
mation from the mobile phone. They obtain a low
performance with an EER value equals to 9%. An-
other work combined different behaviors of the user
to authenticate him/her with an EER equals to 9.2%
(Saevanee et al., 2014). An interesting work done by
galdi et al. (Galdi et al., 2016) combined iris recog-
nition and information on the camera (sensor finger-
printing) with an excellent EER value (i.e. 0.05%),
unfortunately, none protection of biometric templates
is provided. A recent paper (Stokkenes et al., 2016),
combined face and eyes images for user authentica-
tion. The obtained performance in the best case (with-
out any attack of the protection scheme) equals 1.8%.
We can see that many works have been done to
propose biometric systems for user authentication on
mobile devices. Based on this literature review, we
propose in the next section a new authentication solu-
tion combining fingerprint and biometric pattern. The
first modality is present in most smartphones and the
biometric reference template is safely stored in a se-
cure element (SIM card or the one associated to the
fingerprint sensor). Using the biometric pattern al-
lows to enhance the security level while providing a
practical authentication solution (fast interaction) and
ICISSP 2018 - 4th International Conference on Information Systems Security and Privacy
174
a good protection of the biometric data by applying a
template protection scheme.
3 PROPOSED METHOD
The general principle of the proposed method is given
by Figures 1 and 3. During enrollment phase, Al-
ice has to provide her fingerprint to the smartphone
scanner to generate her reference fingerprint. The ex-
tracted minutiae template is stored on a dedicated se-
cure element to protect it. She has also to enter a pat-
tern on the touch screen. The application computes
many features based on her behavior. We present in
the next section the details on the computation of be-
havioral parameters. We apply then the BioHashing
algorithm in order to protect this template, this algo-
rithm is presented in the following sections. For this
algorithm, we need a secret key in order to be able to
revoke it in case of attack. This secret key could be
a password, a random value, a binary representation
of the pattern. . . This secret can also be concatenated
with other information such as: IMEI number ( Inter-
national Mobile Equipment Identity), Alice’s name,
random value. . . During the verification phase, Alice
has to provide her fingerprint to authenticate herself.
The captured fingerprint is compared with Alice’s ref-
erence in the secure element. If her identity is veri-
fied, she has to enter the pattern on the touch screen.
A capture BioCode is computed and compared to Al-
ice’s Reference BioCode in the smartphone. If both
biometric systems accept Alice’s proof, she is authen-
ticated.
3.1 Fingerprint Authentication
We propose to use in this paper the fingerprint as first
biometric modality. Most of smartphones embed a
fingerprint sensor. Alice has to enroll herself by pro-
viding one or more fingerprint captures. The refer-
ence fingerprint template (a set of minutiae) is stored
in a secure element (SE) associated to the smartphone
or the fingerprint sensor hardware. Figure 2 illustrates
the architecture on Android smartphones embedding
a fingerprint sensor. The matching between a finger-
print template and Alice’s reference template is also
realized in the SE and a decision value is provided
(the score is not available for security reasons).
Considering privacy, this solution is suitable as the
fingerprint reference is stored in the SE. In terms of
security, the solution is interesting even if the enroll-
ment process is realized by the user without any con-
trol. We can expect a smartphone is a personal object,
the enrollment process should be done by the propri-
etary of the smartphone (Alice in this case). Concern-
ing performance, it is described by the False Accep-
tance Rate (FAR) value corresponding of the percent-
age of successful attacks by an impostor. For smart-
phones, the targeted level of the FAR is lower than
0.005% (Burr et al., 2013), corresponding to the secu-
rity level 3. It is difficult to verify this value without
the score provided by the matching algorithm. The
associated False Rejection Rate (FRR) corresponding
to problems to recognize legitimate users is supposed
to be under 2%. No study exists in the state of the art
on the evaluation of commercial fingerprint sensors
on smartphones, indeed, the number of users should
be very important to provide significant results.
3.2 Biometric Pattern
The biometric system we propose to use in this work
intends to increase security for a quick authentication
on the mobile device. It corresponds to a two fac-
tor approach. We intend to first recognize the user by
the knowledge of a password represented by a pattern.
We use the classical pattern based unlock screen ap-
proach. This way of entering a password is quicker
and is more user-friendly on a mobile device. Sec-
ond, the user behavior while drawing the pattern is
analyzed. Many information could be collected dur-
ing the capture process:
X position: the horizontal position of the finger on
the touch screen is recorded during the capture,
Y position: the vertical position of the finger on
the touch screen is also recorded,
Pressure: the pressure of the finger on the touch
screen is captured (provided by the Android OS),
Touch size: ratio of pixels where the finger is in
contact with the touch screen,
Tilt: orientation information from the accelerom-
eter sensor,
Accelerometers: three angles corresponding to
the orientation of the smartphone.
As the time needed to draw the same pattern can be
different for each capture, signals are undersampled
to a fixed length. A constant size description is nec-
essary to use this template as input of the BioHashing
algorithm that we detail in the next section.
3.3 BioHashing
A feature transformation is a function F using a key
K (that is typically a random seed or a password), ap-
plied to a biometric template T . The transformed tem-
plate F
K
(T ) is stored in a database or in a personal
Privacy Compliant Multi-biometric Authentication on Smartphones
175
Figure 1: Enrollment.
Figure 2: High-level data flow for fingerprint authentication
on Android smartphones (source (Project, 2016)).
device. The Biohashing algorithm, described below,
belongs to this class of transformation. During the au-
thentication step, the same transformation is applied
to the query template T
0
with the same key K and
a comparison is realized between F
K
(T ) and F
K
(T
0
).
It is generally considered that, given the transformed
template F
K
(T ) and the key K, it is not possible to
recover the original template T (or a close approxi-
mation) as presented in (Nagar et al., 2010) (mainly
because the transformation is not invertible). The
key constitutes an important secret. The performance
of the authentication system is generally estimated
with FMR (False Match Rate computing the ratio of
false positive verification) FNMR (False Non Match
Rate calculating the ratio of false negative verifica-
tion) rates and the feature transformation should not
decline the performance of the system. In fact, this
approach tends to improve the performance of the bio-
metric system without any protection (but the key K is
necessary). Indeed, the projection of similar biomet-
ric templates from two distinct individuals with two
different keys is in general very different. The Bio-
hashing algorithm is applied to biometric templates,
represented by real-valued vector of fixed length (the
metric used to evaluate the similarity between two
biometric features is the Euclidean distance) and gen-
erates binary templates of length lower or equal to the
original length (the metric used to evaluate the simi-
larity between two transformed templates is the Ham-
ming distance). This algorithm has been originally
proposed for face and fingerprints by Teoh et al. in
(Teoh et al., 2004). The Biohashing algorithm gener-
ates a binary template called BioCode. At the end of
the enrollement phase, the biometric raw data is dis-
carded and the BioCode (with the associated seed) is
stored. The biohashing algorithm can be applied on
any biometric modalities, that can be represented by
a real values vector of fixed length.
The Biohashing algorithm transforms the biomet-
ric template T = (T
1
, . . . T
n
) in a binary template B =
(B
1
, . . . B
m
), with m n, as follows:
1. m pseudorandom orthonormal vectors V
1
, . . . ,V
m
of length n are generated from the random seed K
typically with the Gram Schmidt algorithm.
2. For i = 1, . . . , m, compute the scalar product x
i
=<
T,V
i
>.
3. Compute the binary template B = (B
1
, . . . , B
m
)
with the quantization process:
B
i
=
0 if x
i
< τ
1 if x
i
τ,
where τ is a given threshold, generally equal to 0.
The performance of this algorithm is ensured by
the scalar products with the orthonormal vectors, as
detailed in (Teoh et al., 2008). The quantization pro-
cess of the last step ensures the non-invertibility of the
data (even if n = m, because each coordinate of the in-
put T is a real value, whereas the coordinates of the
output B is a single bit). Finally, the random seed K
guaranties the diversity and revocability properties.
ICISSP 2018 - 4th International Conference on Information Systems Security and Privacy
176
Figure 3: Verification.
Figure 4: Pattern drawing biometric features: captured sig-
nals when drawing a pattern.
3.4 Implementation
The traditional approach to Android development is
to use the native SDK published by Google. If this
is an efficient approach at first sight, it does not al-
low further reuse for a different mobile platform from
Android because the code is tightly connected to this
SDK. As we may want to be able to later evaluate the
authentication performance on any platforms the pro-
posed application is developed using Xamarin frame-
work.
Android touch screen raises touch events every 10
to 30ms based on the gestures. Each event defines
raw values such as horizontal X and vertical Y coor-
dinates, pressure and size of the touch on the screen,
an orientation indicator dedicated to stylus use and a
time stamp. These values highly depend on mobile
model used during the acquisition process:
(X,Y ) position depend on screen resolution when
the velocity vector (X
0
,Y
0
) also depend on screen
size.
Pressure and size depend on screen resolution but
also on screen capabilities.
No guaranties are given by Android concerning
the frequency of events.
Each Android raised event also makes available some
historical events that occurred since the last raised
event, allowing a higher sampling. Concrete tests
show an increase of available events of up to 4 times
when drawing a pattern. These values also depend on
the operating system: iOS mobiles (such as iPhone
and iPad), raise events defining similar but not iden-
tical raw values and furthermore the pressure data
availability depends on iOS version. The frequency
of events is similar to the one observed with Android
mobiles but no additional history is available. The im-
plementation is based only on actually raised events,
Android historical events being unused. Raw data se-
quence is then re-sampled to get the desired input data
length to feed the BioHashing algorithm. The random
seed K used to generate the pseudo random orthonor-
mal vectors is in fact the result of the combination of
a random seed chosen at the time of enrollment that is
stored on the device for further use and a value gener-
ated by the drawing of the pattern. For this last value,
each dot used as crossing point is given as a string
value. A pattern string is then created by aggregating
the value of each dot encountered during the drawing
and finally hashed when finished. The seed is then the
result of the XOR of the random device value and the
hash. This choice is to allow the concrete seed not to
be fully stored on the device.
4 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
In this section, we present the experimental results we
realized for the validation of the proposed system.
4.1 Protocol
In this work, we first used a biometric dataset of data
captured when users draw a single pattern:
Privacy Compliant Multi-biometric Authentication on Smartphones
177
Data have been collected on a Nexus 4 mobile
phone with a touch screen having a resolution of
800 x 1280 pixels,
The pattern was the same for all users and is de-
fined by the following pattern code ”1235987”.
This experimental setup can be considered as the
worst case where an attacker knows the pattern to
draw. 34 users participated to this experiment,
Each user provided 15 samples described by 4 sig-
nals undersampled to 200 values (time normaliza-
tion). Four more signals have been computed by
cnsidering the first and second derivative of X and
Y signals. We also added the total time to draw
the secret path as additional parameter. Figure 4
presents the data of the first sample for user 1. The
x-axis corresponds to the time and the y-axis to
feature value. So, the template size is 1601 (by
concatenating all undersampled signals) and the
single time value,
In total, we have a subset of 34 × 15 = 510 bio-
metric templates of size 1601 real values for biomet-
ric pattern. Considering the BioHashing setup, we set
the parameter values as following:
Template size: n=1601,
BioCode size: m=750 for the Reference BioCode
and Capture BioCode,
As the pattern is the same for all users, in the com-
putation of the Reference BioCode, the secret K
for all users is randomly drawn,
Matching algorithm: Hamming distance.
Concerning fingerprint, we extract a subset of well
known datasets namely FVC2002 DB2, FVC2004
DB1 and FVC2004DB3 (FVC, 2002). We can see
that fingerprints are quite different and representa-
tive of the different types of fingerprint (acquired with
sensors using different technologies). These datasets
have fingerprints from 100 individuals with 8 sam-
ples per individual. In order to constitute a chimeric
multi-biometric dataset (synthetic database), we took
into account the fingerprints from the 34 first individ-
uals. For each FVC dataset, we use so 34 × 8 = 272
fingerprint samples. In order to evaluate the perfor-
mance of the proposed method, we use the following
methodology:
We use the first sample of each user as reference
template, for the biometric pattern, we use this
data to compute the Reference BioCode,
As we do not have access to the fingerprint sensor
hardware (i.e. the value of the matching score)
on a mobile phone, we simulate the result of the
matching score by considering the Bozorth3 algo-
rithm provided by the NIST. This algorithm does
not provide as good results as commercial on card
comparison (OCC) algorithms, it can be consid-
ered as an estimate of the worst performance,
We compute genuine scores as follows. We con-
sider all reference fingerprints and we compare
them with each available samples belonging to
the same individual. We consider two times these
scores because biometric pattern has 14 samples.
For biometric pattern, we compare the Reference
Biocode with all other BioCodes from the same
individuals. We obtain 14 × 34 = 476 fingerprint
and biometric pattern genuine scores for each
FVC dataset.
We have a similar process to simulate impostor at-
tack by considering all biometric samples belong-
ing to another user. We obtain 14 × 34 × 33 =
15708 fingerprint and biometric pattern impostor
scores for each FVC dataset,
Given these two sets of scores, we can compute
their distribution in order to estimate in which
measure impostor scores are different than legit-
imate ones. Second, we compute the Equal Error
Rate (EER) value that is a well known metric in
biometrics that measures the behavior of the bio-
metric system when the decision threshold is set
to have the same number of false rejected users
and false accepted ones.
4.2 Results
First, we try to estimate the efficiency of each biomet-
ric system we combine. The EER value is between
5.2% and 8%. We could expect by using a commer-
cial OCC a much better performance, this value es-
timates an upper bound of error. We compute the
performance of the system based on biometric pat-
tern. We consider 200 threshold values for estimat-
ing False Acceptance Rate (FAR) and False Rejection
Rate (FRR) in all scenarios. First, use the Euclidean
distance as matching score. In this case, we see many
errors as the associated EER value is 27.4%. This
value is very high but we use the BioHashing algo-
rithm to enhance this performance. When applying
the BioHashing algorithm in the best case (secret only
known by the legitimate user), we obtain a perfect
recognition with an EER value of 0%. The worst case
scenario (the secret is known by the impostor) with
a performance similar to raw features performance.
This error could be considered as too high but with-
out using the biometric pattern, impostors would be
able to enter the system knowing the pattern (used as
password). We limit this attack by considering bio-
metric features. Figure 5 provides the score distribu-
ICISSP 2018 - 4th International Conference on Information Systems Security and Privacy
178
Table 1: Comparison with existing multi-biometric systems for mobile phones.
authors biometric modalities protection EER
(Vildjiounaite et al., 2006) voice and accelerometer no 9%
(Saevanee et al., 2014) behaviors no 9.2%
(Stokkenes et al., 2016) eyes and face yes - best case 1.8%
(Galdi et al., 2016) iris and sensor fingerprinting no 0.05%
Contribution fingerprint and biometric pattern yes - best case 0%
Contribution fingerprint and biometric pattern yes - worst case 2.3%
Figure 5: Distribution of scores for the multi-biometric sys-
tem while using a fingerprint database.
tion by combining the fingerprint and biometric secret
path in the best case scenario (where the secret used in
the BioHashing algorithm is unknown by impostors).
We obtain for each a perfect recognition for all finger-
print databases. This is of course an excellent result
and improves results given by applying only the fin-
gerprint system.
Now, we have to consider the worst case scenario
when the impostor obtained the secret K associated
to the BioHashing algorithm. We assume here the
threshold set for the fingerprint system is the one as-
sociated to the EER value (it could be more strict). As
for example, for the FVC2004DB1, we obtain a FAR
equals to 8%. We assume to set the threshold value
for the biometric secret path following the same ap-
proach at the EER value. We computed the FAR in the
worst case scenario and it is 28.7%. That means if the
impostor knows the secret, he has 28.7% chances to
break the system. By considering the multi-biometric
system, he has 8% chances to break the fingerprint
system (on FVC2004DB1) and 28.7% to break the se-
cret path one. As these events are independent, we can
estimate the FAR of the multi-biometric system by us-
ing fingerprints from FVC2004DB1 to 8%×28.7% =
2.3%. For all fingerprint datasets, the FAR is between
1.5% to 2.3% for the multi-biometric system if the im-
postor knows the secret K associated to the BioHash-
ing algorithm. Once again, this is an upper bound
estimate of the proposed method as the performance
of the fingerprint comparison would be much better.
Nevertheless, we can consider this result as very low
considering all the information needed by the impos-
tor.
4.3 Comparisons
Table 1 presents the performance of some multi-
biometric systems for mobile phones in the literature.
Most methods do not provide any protection of bio-
metric templates. This is an important issue as mobile
phones are vulnerable to attacks with malwares. The
proposed contribution provides an excellent result in
the best case and a good result in the worst case (when
the BioHashing key is known by the impostor).
5 CONCLUSION AND
PERSPECTIVES
In this paper, we propose a multi-biometric system for
mobile devices by combining the fingerprint recogni-
tion using its embedded sensor and a behavioral bio-
metric system. The proposed system is very fast (a
few seconds for the capture and about 200 milisec-
onds for comparison) and practical for users as all
these verification systems are commonly used. The
combination of fingerprint recognition and biomet-
ric pattern allows to limit the possible attack and in-
crease the security of user authentication. The privacy
protection of biometric templates is ensured by us-
ing at the same time a secure element and template
protection schemes. In the best case, we obtain a
perfect recognition on our own made database and a
FAR lower than 2.3% in the worst case (the impos-
tor needs the mobile devices, knows the secret path
and the secret key K associated to the BioHashing
algorithm). We intend in the future to embed other
biometric systems such as face and voice recognition
systems. We also work on embedding the template
protection scheme in the secure element.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Authors would like to thank the United Biometrics
company for financial support of this work.
Privacy Compliant Multi-biometric Authentication on Smartphones
179
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