The Role of Children’s Emotions during Design-based Learning
Activity
A Case Study at a Dutch High School
Feiran Zhang, Panos Markopoulos and Tilde Bekker
Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
Keywords: Design-based Learning, Emotion, Child.
Abstract: Design-based learning (DBL) is attracting increasing attention for its potential to support informal learning,
and as a way to enhance science and technology education at schools. However, related research has not yet
considered the emotions children experience during DBL and how these affect the learning process. We report
a case study aimed at developing a deeper understanding of children’s emotional experience during DBL. In
total 9 children (12-13 years old) are involved in this case study. In order to assess children’s emotions during
DBL lessons we used a self-reporting non-verbal instrument (the emotion card, which adapted from Five
Degrees of Happiness Smiley Face Likert) and a verbal instrument (the Geneva Emotion Wheel
Questionnaire, which contains 16 emotions). In addition, a group interview probed into the role of children’s
emotion during DBL. We discuss the methodological challenges exposed in this study, which will need to be
addressed in future studies regarding the measurement of children’s emotions in DBL.
1 INTRODUCTION
Design-based Learning (DBL), Learning-by-Design,
and Learning through Design are related approaches
to learning that apply the tenets of Design Thinking
(Rowe, 1987) in a problem or project-based learning
context. In general, DBL involves open exploration,
learning from trial and error, reflection, teamwork
and supportive tools. Following the growing trend of
computer supported education, DBL increasingly
employs technology-based tools, e.g, Scratch,
Littlebits, LEGO education kits, and MakeyMakey
etc., to support its design and learning process.
It is well known in education research that
emotion plays a vital role in the learning process.
Firstly, emotion is known to affect student’s effort,
motivation and commitment to their academic works
(Skinner et al., 2014). Secondly, emotion can trigger
student’s recall of memories and influence on
student’s cognitive evaluation of events or memories
(Efklides and Volet, 2005). Emotion is also deemed
to modify the choice of learning strategies and the
level of self-regulation in learning (Pekrun, 2014).
Accordingly, for DBL activities, emotions play a
big part both as an outcome (e.g., in the case of
successes or failures, or of group based interactions),
as well as a factor that influences learning.
Nevertheless, some characteristics of DBL, in
contrast to traditional education, may lead to distinct
emotions and consequent impacts on the learning
process. For example, student may frequently
experience failure when building and testing their
prototypes or design ideas. However, rather than
resulting in a negative emotion (e.g. disappointed or
anxiety, etc.), such an episode may generate curiosity,
excitement, or being motivated to explore new design
solutions. Consequently, the effect of such an episode
on their learning process could turn out to be positive.
This research sets out to understand such
emotional facets of DBL when integrated into formal
education for children. As is known, school is a major
part of children’s life where emotions can be very
vivit: children are often evaluated; they experience
friendship, belonging, but they may also have
negative interactions with other children.
To this point, little is known about the interplay
between children’s emotions and DBL from existing
literature. We engage in an exploratory case study
where we pose one central research question (Q0):
What is the role of children’s emotions during DBL?
This was addressed in three sub-questions:
Q1: How do children undergo emotions during
198
Zhang, F., Markopoulos, P. and Bekker, T.
The Role of Children’s Emotions during Design-based Learning Activity.
DOI: 10.5220/0006667901980205
In Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Computer Supported Education (CSEDU 2018), pages 198-205
ISBN: 978-989-758-291-2
Copyright
c
2019 by SCITEPRESS Science and Technology Publications, Lda. All rights reserved
DBL activity?
Q2: How do DBL activities affect children
emotions?
Q3: How do children’s emotion influence their
DBL activity?
These questions are addressed in the context of a
case study, where a DBL activity was introduced in a
classroom with children aged 12-13. The setup and
methodologies used in this paper aim to contribute to
research on engaging children in DBL in the future.
Furthermore, with the understanding of children’s
emotions in this context, this paper will generate
insights for research on developing affective
interventions for the process and research on
improving DBL experience.
2 RELATED WORK
There is currently an increasing research interest in
approaches to learning that are described as, DBL
(Nelson, 2004), Learning-by-Design (Kolodner,
2002), or Learning through Design (Resnick and
Stephen, 1990). As a pedagogical approach, all these
interchangeable terms have been shown to make a
positive contribution to motivation and learning
performance. Researches even have been conducted
to describe the main characteristics of DBL, including
characteristics for organizing DBL in higher
engineering education (Puente et al., 2013) and for
teaching children digital literacy (Bekker et al.,
2015).
On the whole, related research demonstrated that
DBL can have a positive effect on children’s learning
activity. Research reported by Giannakos et al. (2014)
demonstrates that enjoyment had no effect on
students’ intention to participate in similar DBL
activities in the future, while happiness had a positive
effect and anxiety had a negative effect.
In the following sub-sections, we clarify the
context of this research (see section 2.1), describe the
groups of emotion in learning addressed by literature
(see section 2.2) and summarize existing
measurements for tracking emotion (see section 2.3).
2.1 DBL Characteristics
In order to deepen the multilayered understanding of
a DBL activity, and also ensure the external validity
of the study, we settled on a list of criteria that DBL
should match via synthesizing DBL characteristics
from previous relevant studies. The structure of these
criteria follows the framework of the curricular spider
web (Van den Akker et al., 2010). These are detailed
below.
1) The characteristic of Learning Activity, which
is framed with four aspects: It is open-ended and has
enough flexibility, with an authentic context and real-
life scenarios; with multidisciplinary knowledge and
skills; and with a design process.
2) The characteristic of Teacher Role is that
teacher acts as a coach who enables the student to
become an active learner.
3) The characteristic of Grouping, which is made
up of two aspects: children should share a sense of
responsibility; and are expected to communicate and
collaborate with peers and stakeholders.
4) The characteristic of Materials and Resource,
which is composed of two aspects: using hands-on
materials and resources for prototyping or testing and
using minds-on materials and resources for
empathizing, defining or ideating.
In conclusion, the above four characteristics will
all run throughout the case study reported in this
paper.
2.2 Emotions in Learning
In the introduction section, we already emphasized
the importance of considering emotion under the
learning context. But what emotions are frequently
triggered in a general learning context? Pekrun’s
(2014) research on student’s emotions and learning
does not target at a specific age group, but proposed
four groups of academic emotions especially relevant
for students’ learning: Achievement, Epistemic,
Topic and Social emotions.
In short, Pekrun’s taxonomy of learning emotion
provides a macro guidance, which can be potentially
used for qualitative analysis of emotion data in a DBL
context.
2.3 Measuring Emotion
Measuring emotions during DBL brings theoretical
and practical challenges, because the nature of
emotion is complex. The knowledge that guides the
study of emotions will also influence data collection
and interpretation (Rienties and Rivers, 2014). But
after all, tracking learner’s emotion as an approach to
learning analytics offers an opportunity for
educational stakeholders and researchers for
understanding and improving the learning experience
(Rienties and Rivers, 2014).
In the sub-sections below, we extract from the
literature several emotion data gathering approaches,
The Role of Children’s Emotions during Design-based Learning Activity
199
which we believe can be applicable to measuring
emotions in DBL.
2.3.1 Self-report Measures
In general, one advantage of self-reports is that they
can help collect emotion data that cannot be observed
directly. Researchers can obtain such data from
respondents at relatively low cost, e.g. using paper-
and-pen rating scale surveys, questionnaire sand
interviews etc. The disadvantage of self-reports is
also that sometimes data collected by them is biased
or unreliable.
Rating scales are widely applied to obtain self-
reports. Examples that could be completed by
children are the verbal self-report instrument --
Geneva Emotion Wheel (Scherer, 2005), and the non-
verbal self-reports -- Self-Assessment Manikin
(Bradley and Lang, 1994), and Five Degrees of
Happiness Smiley Face Likert (Hall et al., 2016).
With regard to Geneva Emotion Wheel (GEW), it was
developed to measure respondent’s experiences
(Scherer et al., 2013) in diverse contexts, which may
include learning. The Self-Assessment Manikin, a
pictorial assessment, is widely applied also for the
purpose of measuring learner’s emotions. A Smiley
Face Likert (SFL) scale named the Five Degrees of
Happiness is a child-centred instrument mainly for
measuring emotional reactions in child computer
interaction.
On the other hand, Subtle Stone (Balaam et al.,
2010) is a technical and tangible instrument for
children aged 12 to 13. It allows children self-report
seven emotions in the classroom in real-time.
Questionnaires are also a popular self-report
measurement for a learning context, e.g., the
Achievement Emotions Questionnaire (Pekrun et al.,
2011). It was designed precisely for assessing adult
learner’s achievement emotion.
2.3.2 Measures Other than Self-report
Non self-report measurements can be used instead of
self-report measures where these are difficult to
obtain or where they might introduce bias. They can
be used together with self-report for triangulation
purposes to gain a multifaceted understanding of
children’s emotions or to check the reliability of self-
reports. However, these methods are more time-
consuming than self-reports (Encyclopedia.com.,
2008). Such instruments may be various:
Language processing is a form of measurement
for detecting learner’s emotion in text. Linguistic
Inquiry and Word Count (Pennebaker et al., 2015) is
one of the examples.
Computer recognition of facial expression is
another form of measurement, e.g. using the Facial
Action Coding System (Ekman and Rosenberg,
1997), and Facial Expression Analysis Tool (Kaiser
and Wehrle, 2001).
3 METHOD
For the external validity of our study, we ensured that
the main characteristics of DBL would be included in
the lesson plan for the study. We constructed a DBL
lesson plan, spanning a two-week period for a total of
100 minutes of classroom time. In total 9 children
aged 12 to 13 involved in this study, while some of
them were involved in the first DBL lesson and some
in the second DBL (see Table 1.). A team of two
researchers acted as facilitators in the classroom and
collected data through two emotion instruments
(described in more detail in section 3.2), audio
recordings and video recordings.
3.1 Task
In this study, all children worked in pairs and were
given the design challenge: “to design a school
experience for your partner”. This learning activity
was designed after a d.school (Hasso Plattner institute
of Design at Stanford) course assignment about
redesigning the gift-giving experience for their
partner, and was embedded into our DBL framework.
DBL materials and resources in this study included
the d.school crash course workbook, and both new
(e.g. LEGO education kits, Littlebits.) and traditional
(e.g. clay, color papers, tapes, etc.) materials.
The procedure of two sequential DBL lessons in
our case study is adapted from the design thinking
process proposed by d.school (see Figure 1, the
colorful blocks are set up by d.school while the grey
blocks are added by us). Apart from two warming-up
sessions (i.e. team building and introduction), in total
six main DBL sessions were carried out in order.
In addition to taking part in these DBL activities,
children used two instruments to report their emotions
during DBL. Then, we conducted a follow-up group
interview at the end of the second lesson. See
milestones of this activity in Figure 1. At the end of
the activity we offered a gift to children to thank them
for their participation.
3.2 Measures
In this study, we focused on self-report instrument
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200
on account of its superiority on measuring children’s
subjective experience of their own feelings and
behaviors, but also for its efficiency.
We devised an emotion card based on the Five
Degrees of Happiness SFL, a simple non-verbal self-
report instrument which they could complete
efficiently during the DBL. We also used a follow-up
verbal self-report instrument (i.e. GEW
questionnaire), with which children are able to
express their emotions freely. Although some
previous studies already applied GEW in the field of
learning, it has not been applied in the DBL context
before. Moreover, we also used for the first time
emotion cards based on Five degrees of Happiness
SFL under the context of DBL.
3.2.1 Emotion Card
In order that the card looks attractive to fill and easy
to understand, we adapted Five Degrees of Happiness
SFL (Hall et al., 2016). We used it for evaluating
children’s event emotion before the end of each
session, as shown in Figure 2. At the end of each
session, they were required to circle one among 5-
pointing scale to report their overall feeling.
Figure 2: Example of emotion card in this study.
Researchers handed out and collected emotion cards
after every single session. Emotion cards from all 6
sessions were collected (see Figure 1.): Empathize,
Define, Ideate, Prototype, Test, and Present.
3.2.2 GEW Questionnaire
There are two reasons for embedding the Geneva
Emotion Wheel (GEW) into our questionnaire: First,
the emotion families in GEW cover almost all
emotions, representing the dimensions of valence and
control/power respectively; Second, participants are
not required to recall any vocabulary to describe their
emotional experience, but only asked to identify an
experienced or imagined emotion among the various
options provided (Scherer et al., 2013).
We made some adaptations for using this
instrument with children. We chose to decrease the
number of intensity degrees from four in the GEW
Figure 3: Adapted GEW version 1.0 in this study.
Figure 1: DBL procedure in this study (adapted from the design thinking process of d.school.
The Role of Children’s Emotions during Design-based Learning Activity
201
version 1.0 (Scherer, 2005) into three levels (see
Figure 3), in order to decrease the complexity of
distinguishing intensity differences for children.
Furthermore, we combined this adapted GEW version
1.0 with an open-ended question as supplementary for
examining children’s emotions and experience during
DBL activities.
3.2.3 Group Interview with Children
In the end, researchers used a face-to-face group
interview. In the phase of the interview, questions
concerning their answers on the emotion cards and
questionnaires were asked. We held two parallel
group interviews among two groups by two
researchers under the guideline of a group interview
protocol.
4 RESULTS
The central research question (Q0) and three sub
research questions (Q1, Q2, Q3) are in both
quantitative and qualitative results. The answer to Q1
is linked to section 4.1.1 and 4.2.2, Q2 can be found
in section 4.2.1, and Q3 is explained in section 4.2.3.
With respect to Q0, section 4.1.2 where presenting the
changes of children’s emotion state during DBL, is a
supplementary part on the basis of the answer to Q1,
Q2, and Q3. The data collection process includes the
emotion card survey, the GEW questionnaires,
interviews, observations, documents, and audio-
visual materials. In order to ensure anonymity of the
materials the children would deliver, every child was
assigned with an avatar which they used to ‘sign’ their
work and the emotion questionnaires they completed.
4.1 Quantitative Results
The quantitative data sources come from emotion
card survey and the GEW part in the questionnaire.
4.1.1 Undergoing Emotions
Children selected between 1 and 5 emotions and used
only 7 of the 16 categories in the GEW. Most of the
children undergo joy, and some of them undergo
elation, pride, satisfaction, and a few of children
undergo surprise, while only one child experienced
shame and another child experienced anger during
DBL. Among these selected emotions, most (5/7)
locate in the positive quadrant, except for shame and
anger. In the meanwhile, most of (5/7) these emotions
locate in the high control quadrant, except for shame
and surprise.
Within two DBL lessons, a total of 13 valid
responses (8 in the 1st lesson, 5 in the 2nd lesson)
from the GEW questionnaire were collected. Since
children selected between 1 and 5 emotions, these 13
pieces of valid responses amount to 33 ‘votes’ in 7
different emotions. See details in Table 1. Participants
participating in both lessons are in shaded cells. The
abbreviations and marks in Table 1 and Table 2 are
interpreted as: Jo (Joy), Sh (Shame), Su (Surprise), Pr
(Pride), El (Elation), An (Angry), Sa (Satisfaction); +
(high intensity), * (medium intensity), - (low
intensity).
Table 1: 13 pieces of GEW questionnaire in two DBL
lessons.
Participant In the first lesson In the second
lesson
Mickey Jo+ Jo+
Minnie Jo+ Jo+
Donald Jo+, Sh- N/A
Daisy Jo+, Su+ N/A
Winnie Pr+, El*, An+ N/A
Piglet Jo+, Pr*, El+ N/A
Bambi Jo+, Pr+, El+ Jo+, Pr+, El+, Sa+
Thumper Jo+, Pr+, El+ Jo+, Pr+, El+, Sa+,
Su+
Simba N/A Jo+, Pr+, El+, Sa+
4.1.2 Changes of Emotion during DBL
We quantified the scales in our emotion card as a
value ranging from 1 to 5 according to the degree of
happiness. Based on that, a descriptive statistic result
is presented in Table 2. This result includes 24 valid
responses from 8 participants involving in the session
of Empathize, Define, and Ideate, and 15 valid
responses from 5 participants involving in the session
of Prototype, Test, and Present.
Table 2: Descriptive statistic result: 39 pieces of emotion
card.
Session mean sd IQR n
Empathize 3.9 1.5 2.00 8
Define 4.6 0.5 1.00 8
Ideate 4.8 0.5 0.25 8
Prototype 5.0 0.0 0.00 5
Test 5.0 0.0 0.00 5
Present 5.0 0.0 0.00 5
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However, only 4 participants have taken part in
the entire six DBL sessions, while the remaining
participants were absent from some sessions for some
personal reasons (e.g. sick leave, etc.). In order to
probe their emotion changes during an entire DBL
unit, we only analyzed the data of emotion changes
over six sessions from aforementioned 4 participants.
The curve of emotion changes displays as the Figure
4 below. As is seen, all participants reported the
highest degree of happiness as from taking part in the
prototype session and all the sessions after the
prototype session. These curves showed a broad
tendency of rising.
4.2 Qualitative Results
The comments collected through the open questions
and during the group interview were transcribed and
analysed thematically by the first author. Three major
following themes emerged which are discussed
below.
4.2.1 Affective Elements in DBL
Considering the curriculum components framework
(Van den Akker et al., 2010), our data suggest that
some components of this framework have a positive
effect on children’s emotions during DBL. For
instance, children were affected by the DBL content.
Some children think the subject in the Empathize
session was interesting, while others did not feel
excited at all by it. Some children were less interested
in the subject in the Ideation session. Secondly, the
DBL learning activity also affected children. Almost
all children reported that the Prototyping session was
their favourite one. Some children liked drawing their
design idea and some were fond of showing their
design project to others. Thirdly, the role of DBL
facilitator/teacher proved to have a positive effect. A
supportive facilitator made children feel joy; this
finding is in line with the expectation in (Penuel et al.,
2016) that children’s enjoyment increases with the
teacher’s ability to help them connect lessons to the
unit challenge in DBL. Fourthly, the grouping
component in DBL also affected them. Children
considered working with friends makes them feel joy
in line with earlier studies (Carroll et al., 2010;
Giannakos and Jaccheri, 2013) that suggested that
enjoyment is enhanced when working with peers.
Fifth, the DBL material and resources had an
affective impact. For instance, LEGO bricks which
some children used to build their prototype made
them feel good. This statement resonates with (Barak
and Doppelt, 1999) who concluded that LEGO is a
factor making children feel curious presented in the
previous studies.
Finally, the time setting caused a negative
emotional response: children found that starting at 4
p.m. as we did was too late and were not happy about
it.
4.2.2 Emotions in DBL
Children reported several emotions using the verbal
instrument: the emotion of joy, elation, pride,
satisfaction, surprise, shame, and anger. Due to lack
explanation by the children about the experience of
feeling shame and anger, we would not discuss the
emotion of shame further in this paper. Hence, we
only classified the rest of 5 emotions into the
taxonomy (see section 2.2) of academic emotion
proposed by (Pekrun, 2014) for a further discussion.
First, pride was a prominent achievement
emotion. Most children were proud of their own
ideas, their drawings, and prototypes. Some children
felt pride in themselves and even in their partner when
receiving the design solution form their partner.
Second, in the epistemic emotion theme, feelings of
surprise were highlighted. Some children were
surprised when they performed better than they had
expected on tasks, while one child realized with a
feeling of a surprise this lesson was much more fun
than she thought. Third, on the topic emotion theme,
the feelings of satisfaction, joy, and elation were
prominent. Compared to an earlier study (Hugerat,
2016) which assessed the extent of student
satisfaction and enjoyment while carrying out
scientific tasks, our study found that children not only
feel satisfaction with the DBL lessons but were in a
state of elation towards DBL activities. Moreover, the
materials and resources used in class also made them
feel joy. Forth, in the social emotion theme, the
feelings of joy were highlighted. Children tend to feel
joy to work with friends, as was expected based on
earlier research (Carroll et al., 2010; Giannakos et al.,
1
5
4
555
3
4
5555555555
1
2
3
4
5
Mickey Bambi Minnie/Thumper
EmpathizeDefineIdeatePrototypeTestPresent
Figure 4: Emotion values from 4 participants.
The Role of Children’s Emotions during Design-based Learning Activity
203
2014). The supportiveness from their facilitator is
another source of joy feelings, in line with (Hugerat,
2016).
4.2.3 Effect of Emotion on DBL
Our findings from the interview regarding how
emotions influence their attitude or behaviors in DBL
are synthesized into two major aspects: First, Mickey
and Minnie state that joy facilitates their learning
outcomes during the heads-in sessions, while it has no
effect on their hands-on sessions. Second, Bambi,
Thumper and Simba state that pride and elation have
a positive influence on their DBL activities. Similarly
an earlier study (Giannakos and Jaccheri, 2013) found
that enjoyment has no effect on students’ intention to
participate in similar activities in the future.
5 DISCUSSION
Emotion plays a vital role in DBL activities, acting as
a reciprocal linkage between antecedents (the
affective elements in DBL) and effects (the effect of
emotion on DBL). Five DBL components and seven
emotions are highlighted in this study.
The findings reported are only tentative, since this
has been but a small-scale study and we experienced
some serious methodological challenges in assessing
children’s emotions during DBL. First, data collected
may suffer from a social desirability bias, where
children tend to only report positive emotions in order
to appear more appealing to researchers (Hall et al.,
2016). Second, it has not been possible to track
emotions throughout the DBL activity using a self-
reporting instrument as this would have interrupted
the flow of their learning experience to some extent.
This study has derived some useful insights,
which will guide our future research on measuring
children’s emotions during DBL activity: Firstly,
negative emotions need to be fully embedded into the
emotion measurement instrument in order to detect
the full range of emotions. Secondly, to ensure the
credibility and reliability of emotion data, future
study designs should aim to ensure that children do
not share their emotion responses with each other
during the data collection process. Furthermore, due
to the subjectivity of asking the subjects about their
opinion on their own emotions, future studies could
triangulate subjective report data with facial
expression analysis and observation during the entire
DBL activity. Lastly, a pre-and-post test of children’s
emotional states is necessary, since except for
academic emotions, emotions originating from
extraneous activities and factors outside of school
may also influence children’s learning performance.
6 CONCLUSIONS
This paper argues for the importance of considering
emotions in DBL. An exploratory case study where
children aged 12 to 13 engage in DBL in a classroom
was conducted where we assessed their emotions.
Our results show that from the children’s point of
view, positive emotions such as pride and elation
seem to have a positive effect on their engagement
during DBL, while joy seems to facilitate their
engagement just before coming up with a design idea.
Further research will replicate and extend these
results to a broader range of situations where
emotions could play a role in DBL (e.g., cases of
failure, negotiation, and conflict), and at the same
time especially pay attention to measuring children’s
emotion without interrupting the flow of DBL. In
addition, further research may also pay attention to
adding the emotional angle of learning to existing
computer supported DBL tools.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank China Scholarship Council
for their support, and the teachers and students from
Heerbeeck College for participating in this study.
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