Ontological Analysis of the Wikipedia Category System
Alexander Kirillovich
1
and Olga Nevzorova
1,2
1
Kazan Federal University, Kazan, Russia
2
Research Institute of Applied Semiotics of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Kazan, Russia
Keywords: Wikipedia, Categorization, Ontology Validation, OntoClean, Ontological Dependence.
Abstract: We analyse violations of the transitivity principle of the Wikipedia category system, i.e. the situations where
articles from a subcategory doesn’t logically belong to its parent category. The causes of the violation have
been analysed on the base of ontological modelling methodologies such as OntoClean. We propose a new
approach to automatically eliminating the violations. This approach is based on analysis of the relation of
ontological dependence between categories. As a theoretical foundation of such analysis we propose a new
deflationistic interpretation of the essential account of ontological dependence. The proof of concept has been
evaluated on the category C:Mathematics. We are going to apply the proposed approach to derive a new large-
scale domains hierarchy from the Wikipedia category system, and use it to provide BabelNet and DBpedia
with fine-grained domain annotations.
1 INTRODUCTION
Wikipedia is one of the largest knowledge bases on
the Web. Wikipedia data are used in such tasks as
word sense disambiguation, text categorization,
calculation of semantic similarity, and machine
translation. To automatically process information
from Wikipedia, means of data structuring are
needed.
The category system is the main meen for
structuring information in Wikipedia. The categories
specify the thematic classification of articles.
There are two types of categories:
Set categories, for example
C:Cities category
that contains articles about various cities (New
York, Moscow, Kazan, Seville, etc).
Topic categories, for example
C:City category
that contains articles on city-related topics (Urban
planning, Urbanization, History of cities, Urban
culture, etc).
Each category can include subcategories and can be
included in a parent category. Thus the category
system is organized as an directed acyclic graph.
Categories can be grouped using meta-categories,
for example
C:Writers
C:Writers_by_nationality
C:Russian_writers.
Thus it is important that the category system
demonstrate transitivity and nested subcategories be
relevant to the parent category. However, building a
chain of nested categories does not always satisfy this
requirement. This fact causes problems while
searching for articles. Therefore it is necessary to
analyze the causes of violations of transitivity which
leads to a discrepancy between the category and the
article that is located in one of the nested
subcategories.
We understand relevance as rating a category-
subcategory pair in terms of preserving the volume of
common and distinctive features. We assume that for
relevant categories, the volume of common attributes
exceeds the volume of differences, and in this sense
one can speak of the transitivity property of
categories.
However, the requirement of transitivity is often
violated. For example, the category
C:Arithmetic
contains irrelevant subcategories such as
C:Colombian_people_executed_by_firing_squa
d
(see example 1).
Example 1: C
:Arithmetic C:Ratios
C:Rates C:Temporal_rates
C:Acceleration C:Force
C:Motion_(physics) C:Flight
C:Ballistics ... C:Projectile_weapons
C:Firearms
C:People_associated_with_firearms
C:Shooting_victims ...
C:Colombian_people_executed_by_firing_squa
d.
358
Kirillovich, A. and Nevzorova, O.
Ontological Analysis of the Wikipedia Category System.
DOI: 10.5220/0006961803580366
In Proceedings of the 10th International Joint Conference on Knowledge Discovery, Knowledge Engineering and Knowledge Management (IC3K 2018) - Volume 2: KEOD, pages 358-366
ISBN: 978-989-758-330-8
Copyright © 2018 by SCITEPRESS Science and Technology Publications, Lda. All rights reserved
The objective of this paper is to analyze the
problem of transitivity violations in the Wikipedia
category system and to propose an approach to
solving it.
The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2,
we briefly enumerate other projects of structuring
Wikipedia data and note its limitations. In Section 3,
we analyze Wikipedia category system on base of
ontological modeling methodologies and reveal
causes of transitivity violations. In Section 4, we
propose an approach that corrects the category system
by removing intransitive chains. Section 5 describes
the direction of future work.
2 RELATED WORKS
There are many projects for extracting structured data
from Wikipedia (Medelyan et al., 2009; Hovy et al.,
2013), such as DBpedia (Auer et al., 2007; Bizer et
al., 2009; Lehmann et al., 2015), YAGO (Suchanek
et al., 2007; Hoffart et al., 2013; Mahdisoltani et al.,
2015), WikiTaxonomy (Ponzetto and Strube, 2007;
Ponzetto and Strube, 2011; Zirn et al., 2008),
WikiNet (Nastase and Strube, 2008; Nastase et al.,
2010; Nastase and Strube, 2013), ORA (Gangemi et
al., 2012; Nuzzolese et al., 2013), WiBi (Flati et al.,
2014; Flati et al., 2016), MENTA (de Melo and
Weikum, 2010), BabelNet (Navigli and Ponzetto,
2010; Navigli and Ponzetto, 2012), WiSiNet (Moro
and Navigli, 2012), KOG (Wu and Weld, 2008), as
well as projects for alignment of Wikipedia and
WordNet (Ruiz-Casado et al., 2005; Toral et al.,
2008; Niemann and Gurevych, 2011; Ponzetto and
Navigli, 2009; Gella et al., 2014; Titze et al., 2014).
However, these projects cannot completely
substitute the Wikipedia category system in the case
of subject retrieval, i.e. retrieval of articles on the
particular subject (for example, all the articles related
to Ancient Greece).
3 ANALYSIS OF TRANSITIVITY
VIOLATIONS
We have analyzed the category system using the
methodology of ontological modeling and have
identified the causes of transitivity violations.
The category system can be considered as a
thesaurus (ANSI, 2005; ISO 2011; Loukachevitch,
2011). In this case the categories will correspond to
thesaurus concepts, and the relationships between the
category and its subcategory will be viewed as
standard ontological relationships.
Here are examples of such relations:
Generic relation:
o
C:Cities_in_Europe
C:Capitals_in_Europe;
o
C:Software ... C:Operating_systems;
o
C:Mathematical_axioms
C:Axioms_of_set_theory;
o
C:Machines C:Engines;
o
C:Wars ...
C:Wars_involving_the_Soviet_Union;
o
C:Fiction_books ...
C:Dystopian_novels.
Instance relation:
o
C:Capitals_in_Europe C:Moscow;
o
C:Intergovernmental_organizations
C:United_Nations;
o
C:Universities_and_colleges_in_Connec
ticut
C:Yale_University;
o
C:Operating_systems C:Unix;
o
C:Fields_of_mathematics C:Algebra;
o
C:Axioms_of_set_theory
C:Axiom_of_choice;
o
C:Abstract_strategy_games C:Chess;
o
C:Engines
C:Internal_combustion_engine;
o
C:Wars_involving_the_Soviet_Union
C:World_War_II;
o
C:Dystopian_novels
C:Nineteen_EightyFour;
o
C:Organs C:Brain;
o
C:Space_stations
C:International_Space_Station.
Part-whole relation:
o
C:Moscow
C:Cities_and_towns_under_jurisdiction
_of_Moscow
C:Zelenograd;
o
C:Yale_University
C:Yale_University_Library;
o
C:United_Nations
C:International_Atomic_Energy_Agency;
o
C:World_War_II
C:Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor;
o
C:Central_nervous_system C:Brain;
o
C:Unix C:Network_socket;
Ontological Analysis of the Wikipedia Category System
359
o
C:Internal_combustion_engine
C:Pistons.
Associative relation:
Science object of study:
o C:BotanyC:Plants.
Agent counteragent:
o C:PlantsC:Herbicides;
o C:ViolenceC:Nonviolence;
o C:CommunismC:Anticommunism.
Value measure instrument:
o
C:Temperature C:Thermometers.
Activity agent of activity:
o C:HuntingC:Hunting_dogs;
o C:Military
C:Military_personnel.
Raw material product:
o C:GrapeC:Raisins;
o C:Petroleum
C:Petroleum_products
Gasoline;
o C:Textiles
C:Textile_arts
C:Weaving
.
Other associative relations:
o C:DeathC:Death_customs
C:Funerals;
o C:AutomobilesC:Auto_racing;
o C:BooksC:Book_arts
C:Bookbinding.
The meta-categories correspond to the Node
labels.
The problem of ascribing relevant subcategories
to a given category corresponds to the standard query
expansion task.
Representing the category system in the form of a
thesaurus allowed us to apply the methodologies for
constructing information retrieval thesauri as well as
the methodologies for verifying the ontology
correctness, such as OntoClean (Guarino and Welty,
2009; Guarino and Welty, 2000; Guizzardi, 2005;
Gangemi, A. et al., 2001; Gangemi, A. et al., 2002).
As a result, we determined that many cases of
transitivity violations are caused by violations of rules
for constructing a hierarchy of ontology concepts.
The main reasons are:
Incomplete inclusion of one category in another
category:
o Analog film stock is included in the Digital
technology category:
C:Digital_technology C:Digital_med
ia
C:Video
C:Film_and_video_technology
C:Film_stock. The reason is that the Video
category is not fully included in the Digital
media category, because there is also the
analog video.
o The English-language novel Lolita is
included in the Russian novels category:
C:Russian_novels
C:Novels_by_Vladimir_Nabokov
C:Lolita. The same way, the Novels by
Vladimir Nabokov category is not fully
included in the Russian novels category.
o Japanese language is included in Korea
languages:
C:Korea_languages
C:Buyeo_languages
C:Japonic_languages
C:Japanese_language.
Errors in the application of fuzzy concepts:
o Electric chairs are included in the Consumer
goods category:
C:Consumer_goods
C:Furniture C:Chairs
C:Electric_chairs.
Errors due to the application of ambiguous
categories:
o Record charts is included in the Diagrams
category:
C:Diagrams C:Charts
C:Record_charts. In one case Charts is
interpreted as diagrams and in other as music
charts.
o Ship construction is included in the Real
estate category:
C:Real_estate
C:Construction C:Ship_construction.
Using a concept in different senses:
o Digital library Lib.ru is included in the
Buildings:
C:Buildings_and_structures
C:Buildings_and_structures_by_type
C:Libraries C:Digital_libraries
Lib.ru. In one case Libraries is interpreted
as buildings type, and in another as the social
institute.
o Nihilism is included in the Biology:
C:Biology C:Life
C:Philosophy_of_life C:Nihilism. In
one case Life is interpreted as a biological
process, and in another as a social process.
o Snow category is included in the Liquids:
C:Liquids C:Water
C:Forms_of_water C:Snow. In one case
Water is interpreted as a chemical substance
KEOD 2018 - 10th International Conference on Knowledge Engineering and Ontology Development
360
as such, and in another as a chemical
substance in liquid state.
Incompatible identity criteria:
o The Kaaba (a Muslim sacred building) is
included in the Mathematical objects:
C:Mathematical_objects
C:Geometric_shapes
C:Elementary_shapes C:Cubes
C:Cubic_buildings C:Kaaba. The error
is located in the chain:
C:Cubes
C:Cubic_buildings. Cubic buildings,
strictly speaking, are not cubes, since cubes
and cubic buildings have different criteria for
identity. A cube is an abstract, timeless and
unchanging object. If the size of a cube
changes, then it will be another cube. A cubic
building is a concrete object that exists in
time and space and retains identity under
small modifications.
o Bermuda Triangle is included in the
Geometric shapes:
C:Mathematical_objects
C:Geometric_shapes
C:Elementary_shapes C:Triangles
Bermuda_Triangle.
Confusion between concepts and signs:
o House of Habsburg is included in Words and
phrases category:
C:Words_and_phrases ...
C:Surnames_of_Swiss_origin
C:Swiss_families
C:Swiss_noble_families
C:House_of_Habsburg.
o Toxin is included in the Language category:
C:Language C:Terminology
C:Biology_terminology Toxin. The
reason for the error is that the toxin is not a
term. It is a word ‘toxin’ that is a term.
OntoClean constraints vionations:
o Analgesic is included in the Illegal drugs
category:
C:Illegal_drugs
C:Morphine C:Analgesic. The reason
for the error is that the Illegal drugs is not a
type. It is a role, and it should not contain
type categories.
o Optical bombsights category is included in
the Office equipment category:
C:Office_equipment
C:Computers
C:Analog_computers
C:Optical_bombsights.
o Poison berry Sambucus is included in the
Foods category:
C:Foods C:Fruit
C:Berries C:Sambucus.
In the following cases, transitivity is violated not
because of an error, but because of the very principle
of organization of the Wikipedia categories system:
Nontransitivity of the class-instance relation:
o The Santa María ship is included in the Ship
types category:
C:Ship_types ...
C:Exploration_ships
Santa_María_(ship).
o The ‘Ode’ poem is included in the Literary
genres category:
C:Literary_genres
C:Poetry ... Ode_(poem). This case is
complicated by the real lexical homonymy
(the ode as a literary genre).
Nontransitivity of associative relation:
o Zelenograd, a city under Moscow jurisdiction
is included in the Capitals in Europe
category:
C:Capitals_in_Europe
C:Moscow C:Zelenograd.
o Blondi the dog is included in the Nazi leaders
category:
C:Nazi_leaders
C:Adolf_Hitler Blondi.
o Fictional Galactic Empire is included in the
Northern American countries category:
C:Northern_American_countries
C:United_States
C:American_people
C:George_Lucas
C:Star_Wars
Galactic_Empire_(Star_Wars).
o Languages of Djibouti is included in the
Statistics category:
C:Statistics
C:Statistical_data_sets
C:Demographics_by_country
C:Demographics_of_Djibouti
C:Languages_of_Djibouti.
o Biological weapons is included in the Labour
law category:
C:Labour_law
C:Labour_relations
C:Occupational_safety_and_health
C:Toxicology C:Biological_weapons.
o Colombian people executed by firing squad is
included in the Arithmetic category:
C:Arithmetic C:Ratios C:Rates
C:Temporal_rates C:Acceleration
C:Force C:Motion_(physics)
C:Flight
C:Ballistics C:Projectile_weap
ons
C:Firearms
C:People_associated_with_firearms
C:Shooting_victims ...
Ontological Analysis of the Wikipedia Category System
361
C:Colombian_people_executed_by_firing
_squad
.
Thus, the transitivity violation in the Wikipedia
category system is caused by two groups of reasons.
The first group includes the reasons related to the
violation of rules for constructing a hierarchy of
concepts in an ontology. These violations can be
eliminated by the authors of Wikipedia. The second
group includes the reasons related to the very
principle of organizing the system of Wikipedia
categories, the main one of which is the
nontransitivity of the associative relationship.
4 APPROACH TO ELIMINATION
OF TRANSITIVITY
VIOLATIONS
In this section, we propose a method for elimination
of intransitive category-subcategory chains.
4.1 The Basic Idea
As we have demonstrated, one of the main causes of
transitivity violations is the associative relation,
which is not transitive.
Up-to-date methods of extracting transitive
hierarchical structure from the category system (such
as YAGO and WikiTaxonomy) detect associative
relationships between categories and eliminate them
all. A disadvantage of these methods is elimination of
potentially relevant relationships, that don’t violate
transitivity. As a result, there is a need for a method,
that eliminates associative relationships violating
transitivity (e.g. Statistics Demography), but keeps
relationships not violating transitivity (e.g. Education
Teacher).
A proposed method is based on approach to
establishing associative relationships in RuThes
thesaurus (Loukachevitch, 2011; Loukachevitch and
Dobrov, 2014; Loukachevitch et al., 2014;
Loukachevitch and Dobrov, 2004a; Loukachevitch
and Dobrov, 2004b). According to this approach
associative relationship between two concepts
doesn’t violate transitivity if ontological dependence
relation holds between these concepts.
In RuThes the notion of ontological dependence
(Tahko and Lowe, 2016; Correia, 2008; Koslicki,
2012, Koslicki, 2013) is formalized according to
modal-existential account: an object A is
ontologically depends on an object B iff necessary if
A exists then B exists (Simons, 1987, chap. 8, pp.
290–323; Thomasson, 1999, chap. 2, pp. 24–34).
The modal-existential account has several
advantages, including simplicity and mathematical
rigorous. A disadvantage is that its application
requires a human participation. In this regard, it is not
appropriate for the given problem.
Additionally, modal-existential account has been
criticized on pure ontological grounds. Kit Fine has
demonstrated, that this account is very rough
approximation to the notion of ontological
dependence and has counterexamples. As an
alternative, Fine proposed an essential account.
According to this account, A depends on B iff B is a
constituent of the essence of A. Essence of object is
defined as a collection of propositions that are true in
virtue of the identity of this object. These
propositions, in turn, constitute real definition of the
object (Fine, 1994; Fine, 1995).
The notion to be true in virtue of the identity of
calls for clarification. According to Fine’s own
interpretation, based on meta-ontological realism,
this notion designates unanalyzed relation between an
object and a proposition. We propose another
interpretation, based on deflationist approach of Amie
L. Thomasson. According to Thomasson, existence
and identity criteria for an object A are application/co-
application conditions for the term “A” (Thomasson,
2008; Thomasson, 2009). According to our
interpretation, a proposition is true in virtue of
identity of the object A if it is a part of application/co-
application conditions for the term “A”. And,
accordingly, an object A is ontologically depended on
an object B iff application/co-application conditions
for the term “A” contain application/co-application
conditions for term “B”. Our interpretation
demonstrates that the essential account is independent
from meta-ontological assumptions.
So, employing the essential account we obtain the
following criteria of ontological dependence: A
ontologically depends on B iff B is ineliminably
involved in the definition of
A. This criterion suits
better for automatic application.
As an approximation of a definition of an object,
represented by any given Wikipedia category, we
take the lead section of the main article of this
category as well as of other language versions of this
article. Involvement of an object in the definition of
another object is roughly approximated by existence
of a hyperlink between the two definitions.
4.2 Proof of the Concept
The proof of concept of the proposed method has
been realized as follows:
Check whether the relationship between the cate-
KEOD 2018 - 10th International Conference on Knowledge Engineering and Ontology Development
362
gory and its subcategory is associative. Assume
that the relationship is associative if one of its
participants is a topic category. The type of the
category is detected by the method from
WikiTaxonomy project.
If the relationship is associative, then check
whether the ontological dependence relation
exists between the corresponding concepts on the
base of the criterion described above. If the
ontological dependence holds, then keep the
relationship between the categories, and eliminate
it otherwise.
If the relationship is not associative, but
taxonomic, then refer to YAGO that contains
refined taxonomic relationships. If the
corresponding relationship is contained in
YAGO, then keep it, and eliminate it otherwise.
4.3 Evaluation
The proof of concept has been evaluated with
category
C:Mathematics. The choice of this category
was motivated by the practical task of interlinking
OntoMath
Pro
ontology (Nevzorova et al., 2014;
Elizarov et al., 2014; Elizarov et al., 2016; Elizarov et
al., 2017) with DBpedia.
For the task of evaluation we recursively formed
a list of subcategories of
C:Mathematics category.
Then we applied our method to eliminate supposedly
irrelevant subcategories. The lists of the eliminated
and the kept categories were analyzed manually. The
assessor’s task was to check whether the kept
categories were relevant, and the eliminated
categories were irrelevant. The assessment result is
represented in Table 1.
Table 1: The result of the preliminary assessment of the
proposed method with C:Mathematics.
Total 4281
True positives 2136
True negatives 650
False positives 1010
False negatives 485
Recall 0,814956
Precision 0,678957
F1 score 0,740766
5 CONCLUSION
We analyzed the causes for transitivity violations in
the Wikipedia category system and proposed an
approach to their elimination.
The main contributions of this paper are:
(1) an ontological analysis of the Wikipedia category
system;
(2) a new approach to eliminating the violations of
transitivity in this category system, based on
analysis of the relation of ontological dependence
between categories; and
(3) a new deflationistic interpretation of the essential
account of ontological dependence, obtained by
application of the meta-ontological framework of
Amie Thomasson to the ontological dependence
account of Kit Fine.
However, our work is on early stage and will be
continued in the following directions:
1. Ontological Analysys of the Wikipedia
Category System. We are going to conduct an
ontological analysis in a more systematic way. In
particular, it is supposed to find a numerical
distribution of the category-subcategory relationships
as well as of the causes for transitivity violations.
2. Aboutness Analysis of the Wikipedia Category
System. We are going to complement our ontological
analysis of the Wikipedia category system with an
analysis based on the notion of aboutness. Aboutness
is the relation between a meaningful item (such as a
document or a proposition) and its subject matter.
Subject matter is a central concept in Library and
information science (Hjørland, 2016; Hjørland, 1992)
and has been formalized in formal semantics and
mathematical logic (Hawke, 2017). In our analysis,
we would rely on the formalization of Yablo (2014),
according to which subject matter is conceived as a
partition of logical space and the part-whole relation
between two subjects is defined as refinement relation
between two partitions. With this formalisation in
hands, we consider a category-subcategory chain as
transitivity-preserving if subject matter, associated
with the subcategory is a part of the subject matter,
associated with the category.
Additionally, we are going to investigate
correspondence between the notions of aboutness and
ontological dependence. Our working hypothesis to
be proved or disproved is that A is ontologically
depended on B iff the subject matter associated with
A is a part of the subject matter associated with B.
3. Formalization of the Deflationistic
Interpretation of the Essential Account of
Ontological Dependence. In this paper we proposeed
a new deflationistic interpretation of the essential
account of ontological dependence, where this
Ontological Analysis of the Wikipedia Category System
363
relation has been explained in terms of
application/co-application conditions. However, the
notion of application/co-application conditions itself
requires clarification and formalization. We a going
to formalize this notion on base of the situation
semantics for relevant logic (Mares, 2004).
4. Refining of the proposed Approach. In
particular, it is supposed to analyze other articles in
the target category, as well as to use the context of the
link within the definition.
5. Fine-grained Domain Annotation of DBpedia
and BabelNet. We are going to apply the developed
approach to derive a new large-scale domains
hierarchy from the Wikipedia category system. In
contrast to relatively small domains hierarchies of
WordNet, BabelNet and DBpedia, the extracted
hierarchy will contain a large number of fine-grained
domains, such as Ancient Greece, Moscow, Modal
logic, Object-oriented programming or Star Wars.
This hierarchy will be integrated into RuThes
Cloud, a multilevel multilingual resource of the
Linguistic Linked Open Data (Kirillovich et al., 2017;
Galieva et al., 2017), and can be naturally applied to
carry out fine-grained domain annotation of the
resources, automatically extracted from Wikipedia,
first of all, DBpedia and BabelNet.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was funded by the subsidy allocated to
Kazan Federal University for the state assignment in
the sphere of scientific activities, grant agreement no.
1.2368.2017, and by the subsidy of the Russian
Government to support the Program of Competitive
Growth of Kazan Federal University.
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