Atmospheric and Marine Corrosion: Influential
Environmental Factors and Models
Y K Cai
1
, Y Zhao
1
, Z K Zhang
1
, X B Ma
1,*
and B Cheng
2
1
School of Reliability and Systems Engineering, Beihang University, No.37
Xueyuan Road, Haidian District, Beijing, China
2
Science and Technology on Reactor System Design Technology Laboratory,
Chengdu, China
Corresponding author and e-mail: X B Ma, maxiaobing@buaa.edu.cn
Abstract. The corrosion of metals exposed to the atmosphere and marine environments is
expensive to our societies in terms of structure safety and durability. In this paper, the effects
of environmental factors on atmospheric and marine corrosion are reviewed as well as the
accelerating models. It is revealed that relative humidity, temperature, sulfur dioxide, and
chloride are the major influential factors to atmospheric corrosion. Generally, the increase of
these factors would cause the increase of corrosion rate and the accelerating effects are
nonlinear in most cases. Interactive effects exist between different factors and the
mechanisms are complicated. In marine environment, salinity, temperature, dissolved dioxide,
pH, oxidation reduction potential and water velocity can influence the corrosion process
simultaneously in even more sophisticated mechanisms. Meanwhile, as the marine
environmental factors that mentioned above are strongly dependent on each other, it is
difficult to analyse the marine environmental factors and the corrosion rate.
1. Introduction
Corrosion has been reported to account for more failures in terms of cost and tonnage than any other
type of material degradation process. The components and structures corrosion are inseparable from
the environmental factors. At present, the more extensive research is corrosion in the atmosphere and
the marine. Under each environment, there are some models about the environmental sensitive
factors on corrosion rate, and each environmental factor has different influence on the corrosion rate.
So, it is difficult to analyze the influence of a single factor due to the existence of complex
interactions between them. In addition, there is also a correlation between different environmental
factors. Therefore, environmental factors have a long and complex impact on the corrosion process.
Many works have been done to derive accurate models to estimate corrosion under different
environmental conditions.
This paper summarizes the commonly used corrosion rate - environmental factors models for
atmospheric and marine environment, and gives the parameter meaning and applicable conditions of
each model. The interaction between different environmental factors is also briefly discussed.
178
Cai, Y., Zhao, Y., Zhang, Z., Ma, X. and Cheng, B.
Atmospheric and Marine Corrosion: Influential Environmental Factors and Models.
In Proceedings of the International Workshop on Environmental Management, Science and Engineering (IWEMSE 2018), pages 178-186
ISBN: 978-989-758-344-5
Copyright © 2018 by SCITEPRESS – Science and Technology Publications, Lda. All rights reserved
2. Effects of environmental factors on atmospheric corrosion
Atmospheric corrosion is simultaneously influenced by various environmental factors. In this paper,
only the effects of relative humidity, temperature, sulphur dioxide, and chloride on corrosion are
studied. Effects of wind and other factors on atmospheric corrosion are discussed in Ref. [1-4]. The
acceleration model is a link that relates the corrosion parameters to the environmental variables.
General discussions about which model is useful for different environmental factors in practice can
be found in Ref. [5].
2.1. Relative humidity
The increase of relative humidity has been found to increase the corrosion rate [2, 6-8]. Studies have
demonstrated that the corrosion current increases following an exponential law when RH increases
from 53% to 92% [7] and from 40% to 90% [8]. However, when the relative humidity is below 80%
85%, nearly no atmospheric corrosion of carbon steel was observed in many studies [9, 10]. This is
because that the presence of a film electrolyte formed on metallic surfaces is the fundamental basis to
proceed atmospheric corrosion with anodic and cathodic reactions. This threshold is denoted as the
critical relative humidity (CRH). Studies have also found that the thickness of the electrolyte film can
influence the corrosion rate. Corrosion rates increase with the thickness of the electrolyte film. When
the electrolyte film exceeds a finite thickness, corrosion reaction will slow down due to limited
oxygen diffusion [11].
In atmospheric conditions, there are many factors that can influence the critical relative humidity
level and the thickness of the electrolyte film. These factors include material, corrosion products
composition, pollutants concentration, and hygroscopic salts [4]. For instance, N. Van den Steen, et
al. [12] have found that sample thickness, heat transfer and changing rates, and relative humidity
influence the electrolyte film thickness. When metallic surfaces are contaminated by hygroscopic
salts, the surface can be wetted at lower RH [4].
In most applications where relative humidity is used as an accelerating variable, the Peck
accelerating model is employed, which is expressed as
B
r RH A RH
(1)
where
RH
is a proportion denoting relative humidity and
A
,
B
are constants. An alternative relative
humidity relationship suggested by Klinger [13] on the basis of a simple corrosion kinetic model,
uses the term
1RH RH
instead of
RH
in Eq. (1). Thus, the Peck accelerating relation comes to
0
1
B
r RH A RH RH

(2)
Note that as
1RH
, Eq. (2) is singular, and so it is not valid if
RH
is sufficiently close to 1. The
exponential relation proposed by Vernon (Eq. (3)) [14] can be introduced to correlate the corrosion
rate with relative humidity, which is
B RH
r RH A e

(3)
2.2. Temperature
The complicated effect of temperature on corrosion is reflected in two aspects: the influence on
corrosion reaction rate directly and influence on electrolyte film formation.
Atmospheric corrosion is an electrochemical process controlled by anodic and cathodic reactions. In
theory, the corrosion rate can be correlated to the ambient temperature with the Arrhenius law [5]. It
has been suggested that a 2
C
increase in temperature can increase the corrosion rate by 15% [15]. C.
Lin [16]
studies three kinds of steel in accelerated corrosion tests and develops a corrosion model
Atmospheric and Marine Corrosion: Influential Environmental Factors and Models
179
deduced from the Arrhenius law. There is also a strong positive correlation between corrosion rate
and temperature for magnesium [6, 17] and zinc [7].
In reality, the atmospheric corrosion is a complex discontinuous electrochemical process due to
the evaporation and condensation of moisture in highly dynamic environments. Generally, metal
surfaces undergoes daily wet-dry cycles. Electrolyte film forms on the metal surface at night when
temperature decreases and RH increases, proceeding the corrosion reactions. Corrosion reactions halt
after sunrise when temperature increases and the electrolyte film evaporates. In the winter, when the
temperature is lower than the freezing point, corrosion reactions cannot proceed due to constrained
transport of oxygen to the metal surface.
Theoretically, the effect of temperature on atmospheric corrosion rate is typically described with
the Arrhenius relation [5], which follows
ET
r T D e

(4)
In Eq. (4),
is the corrosion reaction rate,
D
is a constant.
T
is the thermodynamic
temperature in Kelvin.
a
E E K
, where
a
E
is the activation energy which can be estimated from
experimental data, and
K
is the Boltzmann constant.
2.3. Sulfur Dioxide and Chloride
Many researchers have demonstrated the accelerating effect of sulfur dioxide on atmospheric
corrosion [18-20]. The corrosion rates for metal pieces (bronze, copper, marble and steel) exposed in
outdoor environment are found generally proportional to the sulfur dioxide concentration [21], while
some researchers [19, 22, 23] used the power function to model the accelerating effect. G. W. Walter
[24] indicated that sulfur dioxide will be oxidized to sulfate ion (
) in the water. During the
process, hydrogen ions (
H
) are produced, which results in the increase of the corrosion rate and
causes the dissolution of corrosion products. X. Cao [3] elucidates the reasons of the accelerating
effect as following: (a) the cathodic reactant is more effective than the dissolved oxygen because the
solubility of sulfur dioxide is about 1,300 times higher than oxygen in the water; (b) the CRH level
reduces due to the presence of sulfur dioxide; (c) sulfur dioxide acts as a catalyst and one sulfate ion
can catalyze the dissolution of more than 100 atoms of iron.
It has also been reported that the presence of chloride can obviously accelerate the atmospheric
corrosion for steel [16], zinc [18], and magnesium alloys [6, 16-18]. When chloride deposits on the
metal surface, the electrolyte conductivity increases [6] as well as the time of wetness of the metal
surface. The power function [19, 22, 23, 25] and the quadratic function [16, 18] is used to correlate
the corrosion loss rate with the chloride deposition rate by some researchers. I.S. Cole [26] has
discussed that the chloride deposition is primarily controlled by the wind turbulence, the distance
from the coast and also influenced by rain and surface temperature.
J Tidblad [22] and A. A. Mikhailov [23] analyzed the metal exposure investigation of the ISO
CORRAG program [27] and derived the dose-response function which follows
22
G
r SO F SO
(5)
I
r Cl H Cl
(6)
where
2
SO
is the sulphur dioxide concentration,
Cl
is the chloride deposition rate.
F
,
G
,
H
, and
I
are constants estimated from experimental data. However, Eqs. (5)-(6) are not appropriate because
in practice, the corrosion rate does not equal zero when the sulfur dioxide concentration or the
chloride deposition rate equals zero. Instead, Eqs. (5)-(6) are modified to the following Eqs. (7)-(8)
[19]
IWEMSE 2018 - International Workshop on Environmental Management, Science and Engineering
180
22
1
G
r SO F SO
(7)
1
I
r Cl H Cl
(8)
2.4. Discussion
In the field environment, there are interactive effects between different environmental factors. For
example, it is showed that the zinc corrosion rate did not show dependence on temperature in the
presence of carbon dioxide [28]. Similar results were also reported for copper corrosion in the
presence of nitric acid [2]. Moreover, the nitrogen oxides (NO
x
) are also important factors that can
promote the atmospheric corrosion. J. G. Castano [29] summarizes the effect of NO
x
on atmospheric
corrosion of different metals (copper, aluminum, nickel, carbon steel and zinc), but no coincident
conclusion is drawn. Some authors believe to be of little influence [30, 31], some detected it an
inhibitive effect [32, 33], while others consider the effect is dependent on other factors such as
humidity [34, 35], the type of the metal [29], and SO
2
concentrations [20, 29]. With such complex
mechanisms, the interactive effect between different factors is hard to be fully quantified. In this
paper, the effect of SO
2
is included and the interactions between different pollutants are not
considered.
Except from the environmental factors discussed above, carbon dioxide, ozone, solar radiation,
wind, and rain are also important for different materials. For example, carbonation is the major cause
for the failure of concrete structure due to the erosion of carbon dioxide [15]. The corrosion of silver
can be accelerated by the presence of ozone and ultraviolet [36]. Solar radiation, wind, and rain can
influence the deposition rate of chloride and the time of wetness [4]. When materials are subject to
more complex ambient environmental conditions with multiple atmospheric corrosive factors,
interactive effect occurs and the effect of each factor should be analyzed carefully.
3. Effects of environmental factors on marine corrosion
Marine environment contains plenty of corrosive media like seawater temperature, dissolved oxygen,
water velocity, pH, oxidation reduction potential (ORP) and various dissolved salts, so the influence
of marine environment on corrosion is more complex than atmosphere. When components and
structures operate in such a complex marine environment, all kinds of corrosion forms are inevitable.
Marine corrosion can take different forms, for example: general corrosion, pitting corrosion, stress
corrosion cracking, weld corrosion, bimetallic corrosion, filiform corrosion, corrosion fatigue,
fretting corrosion and bacterial corrosion [37-39, 51]. In general marine corrosion, which is the most
common form of corrosion, the wastage is spread over the surface of the materials [40]. Through the
different forms of corrosion, the uniform general corrosion is the type that is considered here.
3.1. Salinity
Seawater is extremely corrosive due to its high salt content. The salinity of seawater generally is 35
ppt and far higher than river water which is only 0.02 ppt. Thus, marine corrosion occurs easily and
accelerates the corrosion rates. But the corrosion rates do not rise all the time with the salinity rising.
Test shows that corrosion rates reach the maximum when the salinity is 32 to 35 ppt, namely the
salinity of natural seawater [45, 49].
This is due to the effect of salinity on the corrosion reaction. On one hand, the transfer speed of
the charge is accelerated with the increase of the salinity of the seawater. So, the corrosion rates
accelerate obviously. On the other side, with the salt concentration increasing, the solubility of
oxygen in the seawater is decreasing so that the corrosion rate will be reduced. When the salinity is
less than the natural sea, the influence of electrical conductivity is dominated. When the salinity
exceeds the natural sea water salinity, the increase of salinity causes the decrease of oxygen content
Atmospheric and Marine Corrosion: Influential Environmental Factors and Models
181
to exceed the increase of electrical conductivity. In this case, the corrosion rate decreases with the
increase of salinity.
The relation between the corrosion rate correction factors for salinity and salinity ratio, based on
the results presented by Uhlig and Revie [42], can be modeled by a truncated log-normal function as
2
2
ln
exp
2
2
S
RS
S







(9)
In Eq. (9),
RS
is the corrosion rate correction factor for salinity (corrosion rate at actual salinity
/ corrosion rate at nominal conditions),
S
is the salinity ratio (actual salinity / nominal salinity).
is
a constant introduced as a magnification factor to adjust the values of the corrosion rate correction
factor (
0
).
is a constant introduced to adjust the truncated portion (
0
).
, and
are
constants corresponding to mean value and standard deviation of the distribution. It must be stressed
that this function has been chosen just to represent the form of the curve and not as a probability
density function.
3.2. Temperature
Temperature is also an important parameter in seawater corrosion because it usually accelerates
corrosion by increasing the temperature [43-45, 50]. However, as the temperature rises, the solubility
of oxygen decreases, which also weakens the temperature effect [48].
Based on the experimental evidence, a correlation factor is proposed to adjust for the effect of
temperature. It is assumed that corrosion rate is a linear function of temperature for seawater
temperatures below 80 ºC
R T cT d
(10)
In Eq. (10),
RT
is the corrosion rate correction factor for temperature (corrosion rate at actual
temperature / corrosion rate at nominal conditions),
T
is the temperature ratio (actual temperature /
nominal temperature),
c
is the constant representing the slope of the
-R T T
relationship and
d
is
the constant represents the
RT
value at zero
T
.
3.3. Dissolved oxygen
Because the corrosion of most metals in seawater is oxygen depolarization corrosion, the content of
dissolved oxygen in seawater is an important factor affecting the corrosivity of seawater. The
solubility of oxygen in sea water mainly depends on the salinity and temperature of the sea water.
With the increase of salinity or temperature, the solubility of oxygen is reduced [45].
Melchers [46] has shown that there is a linear relationship between dissolved oxygen and rate of
corrosion. Fontana [43] has proposed a schematic diagram showing the effect of oxygen and
oxidizers on the corrosion rate.
Based on the mentioned results, the relation between the corrosion rate correction factor for
dissolved oxygen and the dissolved oxygen concentration ratio is proposed as a linear relationship:
R O aO b
(11)
In Eq. (11), where
RO
is the corrosion rate correction factor for dissolved oxygen
concentration (corrosion rate at actual oxygen concentration / corrosion rate at nominal conditions),
O
is the dissolved oxygen concentration ratio (actual oxygen concentration / nominal oxygen
IWEMSE 2018 - International Workshop on Environmental Management, Science and Engineering
182
concentration),
a
is a constant representing the slope of the
-R O O
relationship and
b
is a
constant representing the corrosion rate correction factor
RO
at zero
O
.
3.4. pH
In the range of near neutral pH, the corrosion rate of metals decreases with the increase of pH. After
the reduction of pH, the corrosion rate of metals increased significantly, which is not only due to the
increase of hydrogen evolution, but also the metal surface dissolved by the surface oxide film has
greater affinity for oxygen and is conducive to the depolarization of oxygen. However, the pH of
seawater is always stabilized at 7.6 to 8.3. That is to say, the difference of corrosion rate in this range
is very small.
A relation between corrosion rate and pH can be derived [37, 48] as
10
n pH
R pH k


(12)
In Eq. (12),
R pH
is corrosion rate correction factor for Ph (corrosion rate at actual Ph /
corrosion rate at nominal conditions).
k
and
n
are constants.
3.5. Water velocity
Flowing water can result in an increase in the amount of dissolved oxygen that reaches the material
surface. Meanwhile, flowing water can remove protective films over the material surface. Higher
velocity of seawater particles will lead to an increase in corrosion rate. The corrosion rate may
double when water moves at 1m/s [47].
These results suggest that the relation between the corrosion rate correction factor for velocity and
velocity ratio can be modeled as an exponential relation:
 
1
v
R v e



(13)
In Eq. (13),
Rv
is the corrosion rate correction factor for velocity,
v
is the flow velocity ratio,
is a magnification factor to adjust the value of the corrosion rate correction factor (
0),
is a
constant introduced to adjust the truncated portion from the distribution (
0) and
is a factor to
adjust the curvature and the slop of the curve (
0).
3.6. Discussion
The marine environmental factors that mentioned above do not vary independently and they have a
strong correlation. For instance, temperature can make great difference to other parameters and the
increase of dissolved oxygen can rise the ORP. Therefore, it is difficult to analyze the marine
environment factors and the correlation of corrosion rate.
Generally, temperature is the independent variable which is not changed by other factors. Except
salinity, pH, dissolved oxygen and ORP are affected with temperature variation. In addition,
dissolved oxygen is negatively correlated with temperature and salinity. And temperature, dissolved
oxygen and pH have varying degrees of effect on ORP.
4. Conclusions
This paper presented a review of the influential environmental factors on atmospheric and marine
corrosion processes and the accelerating models. Relative humidity, temperature, sulfur dioxide, and
chloride are the major influential factors to atmospheric corrosion while in marine environment, the
factors include salinity, temperature, dissolved dioxide, pH, oxidation reduction potential and water
velocity. Generally, the change of these factors would change the corrosion rate. However, the
Atmospheric and Marine Corrosion: Influential Environmental Factors and Models
183
accelerating effects are different for each environmental factors. Interactive effects exist between
these factors and the mechanisms are complicated. Care should been taken when these models are
applied in practice for different materials and in different environments.
Acknowledgement
This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No: 61473014).
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