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concrete individual products by machines and
humans.
Van Heusden and Jorna have generalised the
model of Information Space to a model for the
Semiotic Space, with the following three axes: (1)
level of detailing of sensory (perceptual) knowledge,
(2) degree of codification, (3) degree of abstraction
(Van Heusden, 2001).
3.6 Organisational Semiotics (Stamper/
Liu)
The Organisational Semiotics approach takes a
similar interest of the role of semiotics in
information systems engineering (Liu, 2000). The
concept of affordances (Gibson, 1986) and the basic
notions of human responsibility and norm-based
actions could prove very useful for the development
of lean information systems. However, it seems to
me that this approach has difficulties in case of
vague, evolving or conflicting norms, and that it has
a rather “static” semantic stance. In analysis it tries
first to establish the meaning of all terms concerned,
and will then define the norms involved (“A Norm
Analysis is normally carried out on the basis of the
result of the Semantic Analysis”, Liu, 2000, p102).
The pragmatic and the social components of this
approach are in the current state not sufficient to
deal with the problems that are discussed in this
paper. Especially dealing with the questions related
to the different kinds of information, or to
conflicting norms in business practice is problematic
using the available methods of organisational
semiotics.
4 TYPES OF PROCESSES
WITHIN A COMPANY
There are a number of frequently used classifications
of processes within companies. Important is the
distinction between primary processes, control
processes, and supporting processes. The primary
processes directly concern the creation of products
for the markets, control processes concern the
planning, direct control, coordination, and
accountability of the primary processes, and the
supporting processes facilitate the first two types of
processes (and themselves).
For our purpose this classification is important,
but another classification is even more important.
Some processes have a clearly defined beginning
and ending; once they are started they go through
pre-defined stadia to reach their point of termination.
Consider for example the handling of a customer
order for standard products: from the order itself, via
order pick, dispatch, delivery, billing, and payment.
Other processes are iterative, production planning
for example. It is iterative because the same activity
is repeated on different points in time (for one
particular production week a year in advance, three
months in advance, one month in advance, the week
preceding it). Another example is the one-off sale of
capital goods through negotiations: this is very much
an iterative process. There are also processes that are
permanently active, like production monitoring; as
long as the production is active, the monitoring will
be active. Certain registration functions are of this
nature as well; think of the weighing process in a
slaughter line, or a porter or a receptionist.
Another criterion to classify processes by is the
nature of the information that is being processed. In
terms of Boisot / Van Heusden & Jorna: To what
degree is the nature of the information sensory,
codified or abstract?. One could also say: is the
information hard or soft? In the two examples
mentioned above the customer order for standard
products is very much codified, while the one-off
sale of capital has a strong sensory component (that
is the nature of negotiations: a constant gauging of
the limits of the opposing party). The discussion on
SigInt (Signal Intelligence, the automatic monitoring
of telecommunications by systems of intelligence
services) and HumInt (Human Intelligence by agents
in the field) is closely related to this classification
(Keegan, 2003, p22ff).
A fourth criterion is the degree to which
processes are determined. At first this criterion
seems to be a derivative of the preceding criteria;
terminating processes are determined to a greater
extent than iterative processes, and processes based
on hard information are determined more than
processes based on soft information. However it
essentially is a question of the responsibility for the
execution of processes: the responsibility for a
determined process can be located higher up in the
organisation, and the one executing it is responsible
for handling it in accordance with requirements. In
the case of non-determined processes the
responsibility is located more within the primary
process: decisions in the case of unforeseen
circumstances must be taken there. Particularly in
production planning determination is often assumed,
thus having the planner decide what should happen
in the production (this image strongly appeals to
hierarchical bosses). Consequence is that the
production manager executes orders without having
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