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Specifically, establishing clear information security
policies and improving user’s awareness of
information security are the most important two
countermeasures. Straub (1990) indicated that
organizations that articulate their policy on computer
abuse and actively enforce this policy should benefit
from these activities, and security measures such as
computer security awareness training sessions also
reduced losses from abuse. Fulford and Doherty
(2003) studied the uptake, content, dissemination
and impact of information security policies within
UK-based organizations, and they found that, while
policies were then fairly common, at least amongst
the sample, there was still a high degree of variety in
terms of their content and dissemination. Actually,
the effectiveness of the policy does not so much rely
on the right content, but rather the way in which the
content is addressed in the document and ultimately
communicated to the users (Höne and Eloff, 2002).
Sometimes, the failures of information security are
caused by the unconscious behavior of users, so,
training users and improving their security
awareness are also the key steps. Stanton, Stam,
Mastrangelo and Jolton (2005) developed taxonomy
of end user security-related behaviors, tested the
consistency of that taxonomy, and used behaviors
from that taxonomy to conduct a U.S. survey of an
important set of end user behaviors. Their U.S.
survey of non-malicious, low technical knowledge
behaviors related to password creation and sharing
showed that password ‘‘hygiene’’ was generally
poor but varied substantially across different
organization type. Further, they documented
evidence that good password hygiene was related to
training, awareness, monitoring, and motivation.
Obviously, in addition to confidentiality, integrity,
and availability, the responsibility, integrity, trust
and ethicality principles hold the key for
successfully managing information security in the
new millennium (Dhillon and Backhouse, 2000).
3.1.2 Cluster2: Cryptography
The cluster2 is mainly about the discussion of
Cryptography. Several classic papers in
Cryptography can be found in the cluster2. The
paper from Diffie and Hellman (1976) was a key
paper in this research area. It proposed two
approaches to transmitting keying information over
public (i.e., insecure) channels without
compromising the security of the system. It also
discussed the problem of providing a true, digital,
message dependent signature. Finally, the paper
considered the interrelation of various cryptographic
problems and introduced the even more difficult
problem of trap doors. Most importantly, Diffie and
Hellman (1976) invented the concept of “public key
cryptosystem” for the first time in this paper. Rivest,
Shamir and Adleman (1978) then was motivated by
the concept and presented an implementation of the
“public key cryptosystem”, which was named RSA,
the most famous algorithm for public key
cryptosystem. About 10 years later, because the
analog of the discrete logarithm problem on elliptic
curves is likely to be harder than the classical
discrete logarithm problem, Koblitz (1987)
introduced a more secure public key cryptosystem
named Elliptic Curve Cryptosystems. In another
paper that can be found from the cluster2, Shamir
(1979) gave a technique that enabled the
construction of robust key management schemes for
cryptographic systems that could function securely
and reliably even when misfortunes destroy half the
pieces and security breaches expose all but one of
the remaining pieces.
3.1.3 Cluster3: Optical Encryption
and Decryption
Optical encryption and decryption is the main topic
in cluster3, and several influential articles can be
found in this cluster. Refregier and Javidi (1995)
proposed a new optical encoding method of images
for security applications. The encoded image was
obtained by random-phase encoding in both the
input and the Fourier planes. They also analyzed the
statistical properties of this technique and showed
that the encoding converted the input signal to
stationary white noise and that the reconstruction
method was robust. An encrypted optical memory
system using double random phase codes in the
Fresnel domain was proposed by Matoba and Javidi
(1999). In the system, two random phase codes and
their positions formed three-dimensional keys for
encryption of images and were used as keys to
recover the original data. In another paper, Javidi
and Nomura (2000) proposed a security system that
combined double-random phase encryption with a
digital holographic technique. The proposed system
enables us to store, transmit, and decrypt the
encrypted data digitally. Unnikrishnan, Joseph and
Singh (2000) proposed an optical architecture that
encoded a primary image to stationary white noise
by using two statistically independent random phase
codes. The encoding was done in the fractional
Fourier domain. In the paper of Situ and Zhang
(2004), a lensless optical security system based on
double random-phase encoding in the Fresnel
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