Assistive Technology Divide
A Developing Country Perspective
Allen Nnanwuba Adum, Uche Patricia Ekwugha and Mercy Aguocha
Department of Mass Communication, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria
Keywords: Assistive Technology Divide, Visually Impaired, Specialized ICTs.
Abstract: Potentially, Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) can shape our individual and collective
lives. Access to information, in relation to physical challenge, especially visual impairment, is a problematic
issue. This is more so, in the light of digital divide. The question now is who among visually impaired
adults in developing countries are aware of; have physical access to, and the resources and skills needed to
use assistive digital and information technologies? Against this backdrop, this study explored awareness,
accessibility and use of specialized ICTs among visually impaired adults in selected urban cities in South-
eastern Nigeria. Thirty In-depth Interviews were conducted to collect data from purposively chosen visually
impaired students and government employees. The study established a general awareness of ICTs, and
limited awareness of specialized ICTs, among these visually impaired persons. It also found that ownership
and access to these specialized ICTs, among these persons, were almost equal to zero; while the use of
specialized ICTs among them appeared a distant reality. This led to the conclusion that a ‘divide’ exists in
terms of accessibility and use of assistive technology for the visually impaired persons in this region. The
study recommended individual and governmental interventions, to help bridge this ‘divide’.
1 INTRODUCTION
I was in the examination hall invigilating my
students. Out there, just to a corner of the
auditorium, a visually impaired student was tapping
hard at the keys of an old-fashioned Japanese-made
Brother Typewriter. The sound of tat ta-ta-ta tat ta-ta
tat rented the air, intermittently. I got close to her
and observed that the output on her typing sheet was
jumbled up. I began to wonder, in this age of ICTs,
wouldn’t a specialized computer and printer make
studies and exams a lot easier for this physically
challenged person? Quietly, I spoke to her in Igbo
language, “Mercy, įmara na computer puru iche,
nwe ike inyere gi aka ide ule gi?” (Meaning: Mercy,
do you know that a specialized computer can be
helpful in your exams?) A gentle smile crossed her
face, as she replied, “ebeni ka onye di kam ga
enweteni ya o! (Meaning: where would a forgotten
one like me get such?). I could sense the
despondency. The challenge, the visually impaired
faced in their bid to live normal lives, suddenly
dawned on me. Yes, assistive technology abound.
This means there is potential help for the physically
challenged in the world. But for people like Mercy,
in a developing country like Nigeria, assistive
technology is still a dream.
In the history of humanity, attempts have been
made at one time or the other to assist the physically
challenged to live normal lives. The Braille system
which was developed over 200 years ago, was meant
to assist the visually impaired to engage in written
communication (Daniels, 1996). Louis Braille, the
inventor had an accident, at age three, which
deprived him of his sight. Realizing that he was
locked out of the vast world of thought and ideas
because of his disability, and being desperate to
read, Braille developed a system of tactile
communication using raised dots (Mellor, 2006).
According to the World Health Organization
[WHO] (2011), there are 285 million people with
vision impairment worldwide; comprising 246
million with low vision and 39 million who are
blind. These millions of visually impaired people
usually depend on written information that has been
translated into Braille or audio books, which take
quite some time to produce.
ICTs help individuals, businesses and
organisations to use information. ICTs revolve
around any device that will store, retrieve,
manipulate, transmit or receive information in a
341
Nnanwuba Adum A., Ekwugha U. and Aguocha M..
Assistive Technology Divide - A Developing Country Perspective.
DOI: 10.5220/0004236003410347
In Proceedings of the International Conference on Health Informatics (HEALTHINF-2013), pages 341-347
ISBN: 978-989-8565-37-2
Copyright
c
2013 SCITEPRESS (Science and Technology Publications, Lda.)
digital form. Electronic devices like personal
computers, digital television, phones, robots, etc
form the basis of ICTs (AccessIT University of
Washington, 2010).
ICTs, especially the Internet, can be invaluable
to visually impaired persons, who could be
empowered to independently complete tasks, such as
reading mails or managing bank accounts, which
they would normally not be able to accomplish
without help from other people.
Assistive technology helps individuals with
disabilities to perform functions that might
otherwise be difficult or impossible. Assistive
technology includes mobility devices such as
walkers and wheelchairs, as well as hardware,
software, and peripherals that assist people with
disabilities in accessing computers or other
information technologies (AccessIT University of
Washington, 2010). For instance, people who have
limited hand function may use a keyboard with large
keys or a special mouse to operate a computer.
People who are visually impaired may use software
like JAWS (Job Assist With Speech) that reads text
on the screen in a computer-generated voice, or
software that enlarges screen content. Those who are
deaf may use a TTY (text telephone), and those with
speech impairments may use a device that speaks
out loud as they enter text via a keyboard (AccessIT
University of Washington, 2010).
Specialized ICTs for the blind usually involve
assistive technology which gives persons with visual
impairment the ability to communicate better. These
devices (see appendix) include:
Bank Note Reader: This hand-held electronic
device can digitally assist visually impaired persons
to recognize banknotes.
Audio Play Back Equipment: This is a portable
digital audio book player which helps visually
impaired students to increase their reading speed,
comprehension and vocabulary.
Refreshable Braille Display: This is an electro-
mechanical device for displaying Braille characters,
usually by means of raising dots through holes in a
flat surface. Visually impaired persons, who are not
able to use a normal computer monitor, may use it to
read text output.
Screen Readers: This is a software application
that identifies and interprets what is displayed on
computer screen.
Braille Note Taker: These are portable
electronic devices with Braille keyboards that are
used for entering information, and a speech
synthesizer or Braille display for output.
Speech Synthesizer: The speech synthesizer is a
device that is used to translate text characters into
sounds that mimic human speech.
Braille Printer: The Braille printer is a device
which embosses Braille onto paper. Braille printers
are akin to ink printers but differ only in their use of
solenoids to control embossing pins.
Mobile Phone for the Visually Impaired: This
is a specialized phone designed specifically for those
who are blind. It has features like Braille keypad and
speaking interfaces.
Many services in our globalised world society are
digitized. Being able to access and use information
and communication technologies (ICTs) has become
a prerequisite for independent living and
participation in the scheme of things in an ICT –
driven world. The ability of persons with visual
impairment to access and use assistive ICTs,
therefore, would place them in good stead to fully
live out their lives in a digitized environment.
Societies in most developing nations such as
those in Africa look at disabilities as burdensome.
Such disposition put the physically challenged at
some disadvantage. In a technology- based world, if
people with disabilities, like the visually impaired,
especially in developing societies, are not abreast
with technological trend, they might find themselves
denied the opportunity of getting good education and
even jobs.
This paper therefore presents the issue of
assistive technology divide from the perspective of
the experiences of a select visually impaired students
and workers in Nigeria
2 OBJECTIVE OF STUDY
The objective of this study was to explore
awareness, accessibility and use of ICTs among
visually impaired adults in selected urban cities in
the south eastern region of Nigeria. The study sought
answers to the following questions:
1. Are the visually impaired adults in major urban
cities in south eastern Nigeria aware of ICTs
generally?
2. Do they know that specialized ICTs for the
visually impaired exist?
3. Do they own these specialized ICTs?
4. Do they have access to these specialised ICTs?
5. Do they make use of these specialized ICTs?
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3 LITERATURE REVIEW
Technological innovations are becoming more
advanced. New technologies continue to develop,
especially in the realm of information and
communication. The availability of computers and
the Internet has raised the issue of accessibility. This
is especially so for physically challenged people like
the visually impaired.
Technological Determinism states that media
technology shapes how we as individuals in a
society think, feel, act and how our society operates
as we move from one technological age to another
(McLuhan, 1962). Also, Rodman (2001) defines
Technological Determinism, as a theory that states
that the introduction of new technology changes
society, sometimes in unexpected ways.
It is inherently difficult for persons with visual
impairment to receive, perceive, or interpret visual
information. This inability precludes these
physically challenged persons from participating, in
a meaningful way, in today’s knowledge-based
economy. Pike (2003) therefore holds that the future
jobs of thousands of these visually impaired persons,
their ability to use labour saving household
appliances, and their capacity to deal electronically
with the rest of the world is at stake.
ICT implies using computers, mobile phones and
other digital devices to access and share information.
ICT systems use screen based technology to present
information. This means that the visually impaired
might find it challenging to read from the screen;
follow diagrams and charts; use email, browse or
blog; and, store and organize information on a
personal computer or phone. Assistive technology
offers possibilities that could make life a lot easier
for the visually impaired. But there are concerns of
accessibility and competencies.
Abner and Lahm (2002) investigated the extent
to which visually impaired students in the U.S. use
assistive technology. Findings show that visually
impaired primary and secondary students across the
United States had not been trained to use assistive
technology in public schools. This means that the
competency required to access such technology is
denied. According to American Foundation for the
Blind (2005), a good majority of these students
attend the same regular public schools, sit in the
same classrooms, and have the same teachers as do
their sighted counterparts. This means no special
provision is made to assist their education, since
they are included in regular education as prescribed
by American law.
Visually impaired students need textbooks in
Braille or large print. Smith et al., (2004) found that,
regardless of the U.S. Education Act which
mandates equal and timely access to information
presented in school to all categories of students,
there was consistent delay in making Braille
materials and large prints available to visually
impaired students.
Kapperman et al., (2002) suggest that students
with visual impairment in the U.S. state of Illinois,
were not receiving the experience the required in
order to use assistive technology.
Thurlow et al., (2009) found a pressing need for
technology-based reading assessment for the
visually impaired in the U.S.
Kelly (2009) investigated the use of assistive
technology by visually impaired students in the
United States. Findings show that a majority of these
students were not using assistive technology.
Mong and Cohen (2011) reveal limited content
knowledge amongst teachers using assistive
technology in Singapore. This results in
inconsistencies and inadequacies in the delivery of
instruction. It also reveals that students instructed
with assistive technology displayed a mixed range of
abilities ranging from little to basic knowledge.
The assistive technology market in advanced
societies is replete with devices which could make
the visual world accessible to persons with visual
impairment. But from the foregoing literature there
appears to be a problem of accessibility to this
available technology. This portends a divide.
Ugodulunwa (2011) notes that visually impaired
students in Nigeria are required to do their
assignments, tests, examinations and write their
research project report like other normal students.
This goes on without provision of specialized ICTs
that can enhance their performance at their studies.
Against the backdrop of the dearth of specialized
ICTs, Ugodulunwa (2011) recommended the need to
provide both hardware and software to meet the
needs of visually impaired students.
Assistive technology can play a major role in
enabling persons with visual impairment to engage
in their occupations of choice and participate fully in
their community (Polgar, 2001). Assistive
technology competency promotes independence for
end users (Ivanoff and Sonn, 2005).
Visually impaired people are, arguably, the most
marginalized group, and are drastically affected by
the visual bias of the information technology
industry. This leaves us with a digital divide on two
distinct poles: the technology "haves" and "have
nots". The availability of information technology
does not necessarily ensure equitable access to
AssistiveTechnologyDivide-ADevelopingCountryPerspective
343
information (Goggin and Newell, 2003).
4 METHOD
A purposeful decision was made to limit this study
to the south eastern region of Nigeria. This was done
with the belief that further studies would reveal what
obtains in other regions. The capital cities of the five
states in this region were selected for this study.
These cities are: Abakaliki, Awka, Enugu, Owerri,
Umuahia. The study was designed as in-depth
interview (IDI). This design was necessitated
because the study was meant as a rapid assessment
of what obtains in the region under study. The study
population is 3668 visually impaired persons. Six
individual depth interviews were conducted in each
of the selected urban city; three with visually
impaired tertiary students and three with government
employees. In all, there were 30 interviews. The
interviews sought to elicit answers from the
respondents with regard to: their awareness of ICTs
generally; their knowledge of the existence of
specialized ICTs for the visually impaired;
ownership and access to these specialized ICTs, as
well as their use of these devices.
5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The qualitative data generated from these 30 IDIs,
spread across five urban cities in South-eastern
Nigeria, offer a wide range of preliminary
conclusions. It is hoped that future studies, based on
a more experimental hue, would make for more
experimental results that would lead to wider
conclusions.
Research question 1 asked: are the visually
impaired adults in major urban cities in south eastern
Nigeria aware of ICTs generally?
The idea of the information age would suggest
that novelties are easily made known to individuals
from one end of our planet to the other. When we
had the Y2K ‘phobia’, it did not take time to belt the
globe. This caused a near panic, midnight 1999.
Along this line, data obtained from interviews with
visually impaired persons in south eastern Nigeria
show that they are generally aware of ICTs. The
response of a visually impaired Anambra state
government employee summed it up:
Well, whoever knows something about ICT
would know that this age is a [the] computer
age. The importance of the Internet should
not be overemphasized. Through the Internet
the world is a global village. Through the
Internet, you can get any information. Those
in the labour market, health, agricultural
sector; Internet makes the world a global
village. That’s all I can say.
Since we are in the information age, it might not be
least expected that the visually impaired would be
aware of ICTs. Many of the visually impaired
students and government employees interviewed
understood ICTs from the standpoint of the ability to
use the computer and the Internet. The following
highlights encapsulate the cumulative gist of their
responses:
A computer does a lot of functions. It helps in
typing of materials. It helps in the banks;
without it we can’t access accounts. It helps
in the UME [Universities Matriculation
Examination] uploads.
The Internet is very important to human life.
It is a very necessary something. We need
Internet to get Information.
Research question 2 sought to know whether these
visually impaired adults knew about the existence of
specialized ICTs for the visually impaired such as
Bank Note Reader, Audio Playback Equipment,
Refreshable Braille Display, Screen Reader, Braille
Notetaker, Speech Synthesizer, Braille Printer,
Braille Mobile Phone. While most of these visually
impaired persons found some of these devices
strange, quite a handful knew about them. These
ones had either heard about them through friends or
got to know that they exist through the Internet.
Along these lines, some highlights from the IDIs are
as follows:
I make use of some persons around; the
technology [bank note reader] is not available
in this country.
Don’t know; I have not heard about it [bank
note reader].
I don’t know about audio playback
equipment.
Well, a refreshable Braille display is [the]
equipment that actually brings Braille dots on
your device, so whatever type of Braille cells
that you have is brought up.
JAWS now...? Is that not JAWS? It’s JAWS
that I know very well.
I have heard of them [Screen reader].
I’m not aware of that [Braille note taker]; it’s
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strange to me.
I have heard about it [Braille note taker], but
don’t know how it works.
Speech synthesizer or JAWS or TAKS are
attached to your device or computer and they
aid voice commands.
Braille printer – that’s the Embosser. It’s like
a printer. Once you connect your computer to
the embosser it comes out with embossed
printout.
I have heard about it but I have not seen it. I
have read about it on the Internet. I know
they have Braille cell phones.
I have heard my friend mention it [Braille
mobile phone]; but I have not seen it.
As earlier mentioned, it doesn’t seem to take a long
while to get modern trends round to everybody.
Today people talk about blackberry, iPhone, iPad
etc; or actually own them! But, not prioritizing
specialized ICTs means that they seem a distant
reality to some visually impaired persons as revealed
by these IDIs in Nigeria’s south east region.
Research question 3 sought responses that would
show that these persons with visual impairment own
specialized ICTs. There were few suggestions here
and there that these persons had conventional
devices with some features that could assist them to
communicate, but not the specialised devices
purpose-made to assist the visually impaired to
communicate and live better. The following
highlights reflect this observation:
My phone has a lot of accessories. I send
sms; multimedia messages with my picture
with the help of my friends.
I only use my phone to answer calls or make
calls and voice commands.
I have one [computer] that has voice system.
The overall picture here is that, the general non
availability of specialized ICTs for the visually
impaired could be responsible for many of these
persons not owning these devices; rather they
depended on conventional devices with some
features that help them to communicate.
Research question 4 asked to know how
accessible these specialised ICTs are to these
visually impaired persons. Ordinarily, in a situation
where priorities are set right, the school and office
settings are critical places that could afford the
visually impaired access to specialized devices. But
this happens not to be the case in this region. A
visually impaired law student at the Nnamdi
Azikiwe University, Awka, puts it this way:
These things are still far away from my reach.
Also, an employee of the Imo State civil service
summed it up this way:
I have heard the theory aspect of it; I don’t
have access to them.
Evidently, for these visually impaired persons, there
is a challenge of accessibility to specialized devices
like the bank note reader, screen reader, Braille
mobile phone, among other devices. “These things
are still far away from my reach”, would suggest
that these devices are distant realities to many of the
visually impaired persons within this region covered.
Research question 5 sought to know whether
these visually impaired persons made use of
specialized ICTs. The response of one of the visually
impaired workers at the Enugu State civil service
gave the overall picture in this regard:
I have heard about computer but I have not
used it; because of the situation in the
country; because of my handicapped
situation. All I need to make me use the
computer have not been made available.
The suggestion here is that, these visually impaired
persons, being aware of ICTs generally, are keen on
having their lives bettered by the use of assistive
technology; but the problem seems to be that nobody
has cared enough to want to make available these
devices to them. This need appears to be embedded
in the following comments from the IDIs:
I would commend you for your research. The
questions you have put to me have opened
my eyes to the world of computer and I will
go looking for them. That’s what you have
done for me.
It’s very commendable to research on
specialised ICTs; I will study more about it.
I’ll expand on the topic.
6 SUMMARY AND
CONCLUSIONS
The overall picture, against the backdrop of the
objective of the study, is that, for the visually
impaired persons who were studied, there is general
awareness of ICTs; and, to some degree awareness
of specialized ICTs. Also, ownership and access to
these specialized ICTs among them is almost equal
AssistiveTechnologyDivide-ADevelopingCountryPerspective
345
to zero, while the use of them appeared a distant
reality.
The implication from these conclusions is that,
since it would appear that the visually impaired in
advanced societies are the ‘haves’, as far as assistive
information and communication technologies is
concerned, and their counterparts in Nigeria are the
‘have nots’, then a divide exists. And, there also
exists the need to bridge this divide in order to help
these physically challenged people live as normal
lives as possible.
7 RECOMMENDATION
This study recommends that there should be an
honest effort to prioritize the provision of
technological innovations to the physically
challenged in the society to help them live more
meaningful lives. For instance, this exploratory
study has shown that little is available to the visually
impaired as far as assistive technology is concerned.
Therefore, individuals, Non Governmental
Organizations [NGOs] and the government in
particular should champion the case of providing
assistive technology to the visually impaired, so that
they could live full lives and contribute their own
quota to the society.
The visually impaired, as much as Louis Braille
did, yearn to be independent. The ability to access
and use assistive technology could do much to help
satisfy this yearning.
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APPENDIX
BankNoteReader
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AudioPlaybackEquipment
RefreshableBrailleDisplay
ScreenReader
BrailleNotetaker
SpeechSynthesizer
Brailleprinter
BrailleMobilePhone
AssistiveTechnologyDivide-ADevelopingCountryPerspective
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