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prerequisite for realizing the benefits of higher
education in both traditional and distance modalities
(Andrade, 2013). However, distance foreign
languages courses have developed more slowly than
those in other disciplines (Hurd, 2006) due to the
need for interaction, specifically input and output.
Language learners need to read and listen to the
target language and produce language, negotiate
meaning, test rules, and get feedback (Krashen,
1985; Swain, 1995; Long, 1996).
An equal balance of meaning focused input,
meaning focused output, language focused
instruction, and fluency development is critical to an
effective language course (Nation, 2001). While
meaning focused input (i.e., understanding readings,
lectures, and conversations), some aspects of
meaning focused output (i.e., communicating
through writing), language focused instruction (i.e.,
studying grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation),
and some features of fluency development (i.e.,
using familiar vocabulary and grammatical
structures for reading, writing, and listening,) lend
themselves to distance learning, other aspects, such
as social interaction, require innovative approaches
and application of technology (Andrade, 2013).
Non-native English language speakers with
aspirations for further education not only need the
opportunity to develop academic English skills
preparatory to enrolling in distance courses, but also
benefit from socialization to educational
expectations, which differ by culture, and the
development of attributes for success in distance
learning contexts. Although the same is true for
many students, the specific linguistic, academic, and
cultural support requirements of non-native English
speakers has been well-established (Andrade, 2008;
Gunawardena, 2013; Holta, 2013).
In addition to language acquisition theories,
distance education and learning theories are also
relevant, specifically as they relate to helping
learners succeed. The theory of transactional
distance explores the relationship among structure,
dialogue, and autonomy (Moore, 2013).
Transactional distance is the gap between the learner
and the teacher in a distance course. The basic tenet
of the theory is that when structure and dialogue are
high, autonomy is low. When structure and dialogue
are low, autonomy is high. Structure consists of the
materials, assignments, due dates, and other built-in
design elements of a course while dialogue reflects
interactions among students and teacher. The latter
may include email, feedback, announcements, and
live conferences. Autonomy refers to both choice
and capacity—the learner’s freedom to choose what,
when, and how to learn, and the learner’s ability to
be self-directed (Moore, 2013).
Related to autonomy is the concept of self-
regulated learning, defined as learners taking
responsibility for the elements that affect their
learning (Dembo & Eaton, 2000). It consists of six
dimensions—motive, methods, time, physical
environment, social environment, and performance
(Zimmerman, 1994; Zimmerman & Risemberg,
1997). Self-regulation behaviors can be taught and
can help students improve their achievement. The
concept has been specifically applied to English
language learning, both online and face-to-face
(Andrade & Bunker, 2009; Andrade & Evans,
2013). As learners consider their reasons for
learning, methods and strategies, use of time and
priorities, where they study, how and when they
seek help, set goals, reflect on their performance,
revise their goals, and make changes, they increase
their capacity for learning and autonomy. The
teacher acts as a facilitator. The result is a learning-
centered rather than a teacher-centered experience.
These elements must be carefully considered in
terms of course design and learner support for
international eLearning. “Development teams must
understand diverse learner characteristics and design
pedagogical environments that address learner goals
and aid achievement” (Andrade, 2013, p. 69). The
case studies in this research examine these factors.
3 METHODS
This is an intrinsic case study in which the case itself
is of interest due to its unique nature (Stake, 1995).
Case studies are appropriate when the research
addresses the questions of how or why (Yin, 2003).
In this study, the focus is on how two institutions
successfully developed programs to address the
needs identified in the literature review—global
access to higher education, affordability, and support
of diverse learners, particularly in terms of English
language proficiency. The purpose of an intrinsic
case study is to understand the case rather than an
abstract phenomenon or to establish a theory or new
methodology (Stake, 1995).
As established, a clear need exists for global
eLearning to provide access and support the success
of non-native speakers of English with a range of
educational, cultural, linguistic, and technological
backgrounds. The two institutions selected for the
study illustrate how this need can be addressed. As
such, this is a collective case study that examines the
similarities and differences between the programs
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