Muscle Fiber Function during Rapid Movement

based Solely on Kinesthesia

K. Ogiso

, K. Hirose

, M. Takenaka

, D. Nagaoka

and M. Tokui

Department of Education, Kogakkan University, 1704 Kodakujimoto, Ise, Japan

Department of Sport Science, Kyushu Kyoritsu University, 1-8 Jiyugaoka, Yahatanishi-ku, Kitakyusyu, Japan

Keywords: Maximum Knee Extension, Vastus Lateralis Muscle, Pennation Angle, Aponeurosis, Reaction Time, Pre-

Activity.

Abstract: This study was designed to examine function of the vastus lateralis muscle (VL) fibers during maximal

voluntary contraction (MVC) in knee extension which was exerted based solely on the kinesthesia acquired

from repeating the MVC movements. Fifteen men performed 10 consecutive isokinetic knee extensions

comprising 7 passive contractions and 3 MVCs, which was repeated for 7 sets. In the first 3 sets, subjects

were instructed to perform MVCs immediately a light cue appeared when the leg reached 60 deg knee joint

angle in the 3rd, 6th, and 9th extensions; in the next 4 sets, subjects tried to maintain the timing of MVC

repetitions without the light cue. VL electromyographic activity was monitored. The point where a fascicle

arose from the deep aponeurosis and the pennation angle were measured on VL ultrasonic images. Subjects

classified their MVC performance (force and timing) into 5 grades after each set. Based solely on

kinesthesia (without the light cue), the VL fibers contracted tightly to a point where the fascicle arises from

the deep aponeurosis, and it appeared to compensate for a delay in reaction time to start MVC. However, the

subject’s self-evaluation remained unchanged despite the changes in muscle behavior during MVC. In the

4th set only, when the light cue was not used for the first time, did their self-evaluation tend to decrease and

VL pre-activity was significantly increased. These results suggest that kinesthesia does not always

correspond to actual muscle activity.

1 INTRODUCTION

We perform physical movement based on

kinesthesia to achieve a given motor task. However,

the outcome is not always what we hoped for. If a

delay occurs between kinesthesia and our actual

movement, a large force must be exerted in a quite

short time to bridge them.

In the pennate muscles, contraction is performed

by shortening the muscle fibers (Fukunaga et al.,

1997; Hawkins and Bey, 1997) and increasing the

pennation angle (Ichinose et al., 1997; Maganaris

and Baltzopoulos, 1999), which rotate the joints

throughout the tendinous tissues elongated by the

muscle. However, the interaction between such

shortening and the degree of the pennation angle is

not constant and varies between low- and high-force

contractions (Azizi et al., 2008), suggesting that

sudden modulation of the muscle force is likely to

induce irregular muscle fiber behavior. In fact, the

muscle fibers have been reported to contract more

tightly near the deep aponeurosis when the timing to

exert force was unexpectedly changed (Hirose et al.,

2013).

Muscle contraction which is performed based

solely on the kinesthesia may not basically give

agreement with muscle fiber behavior which is

induced based on a lot of information. Especially in

rapid movements, a feed-forward control of the

central nervous system which is likened to learned

anticipatory responses to known cues plays an

important role to control the rapid motions because a

feedback component is very slow. This suggests that

the function of the muscle fibers may vary

depending on whether information has been received

to start the muscle contraction.

A clinical report revealed that most muscle strain

injuries occur at or near the myotendinous junction

during high-intensity or explosive voluntary

movements such as sprint and quick turn (Okuwaki,

2009). If the muscle fibers are strong and shorten

unexpectedly with an inappropriate timing, it may

Ogiso K., Hirose K., Takenaka M., Nagaoka D. and Tokui M..

Muscle Fiber Function during Rapid Movement based Solely on Kinesthesia.

DOI: 10.5220/0005142900110016

In Proceedings of the 2nd International Congress on Sports Sciences Research and Technology Support (icSPORTS-2014), pages 11-16

ISBN: 978-989-758-057-4

 2014 SCITEPRESS (Science and Technology Publications, Lda.)

induce irregular muscle fiber behavior and lead to

muscle strain injuries with higher probability.

Therefore, we designed this study to examine the

characteristics of muscle fiber functions during

maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) in knee

extension which was exerted based solely on the

kinesthesia acquired from repeating the movement at

a constant timing indicated by a light cue.

2 METHODS

2.1 Subjects

Fifteen men (age, 21.9±1.1 years, height 172.6±9.1

cm, weight 70.5±10.7 kg) participated in this study.

All subjects were in good health, with no orthopedic

or neuromuscular abnormalities. Subjects were fully

informed of the nature and possible consequences of

the study before providing written informed consent.

The experiments were conducted in accordance with

the Declaration of Helsinki. Approval was obtained

from the Ethics Committee of Kogakkan University.

2.2 Measurement Procedure

The subjects completed a warm-up consisting of

jogging and dynamic stretching for 10 min. Then

they were placed in a comfortable, upright, seated

position on an isokinetic dynamometer chair, and the

dynamometer fulcrum was aligned with the axis of

rotation of the left knee joint (Biodex-System 4,

Biodex Medical Systems, New York, USA).

Subjects were secured using shin, thigh, pelvic, and

torso stabilization straps to minimize extraneous

body movements and were asked to fold their arms

across their chest during the experiment. After

correcting for the effects of gravity, several sub-

maximal or maximal knee extensions were repeated

in a second warm-up period. The knee movement

range of motion was from 0 deg extension to 90 deg

flexion and was tested at 90 deg/s (0 deg = straight

leg).

After the subjects familiarized themselves with

the experimental apparatus and procedure by

performing knee extensions at MVC several times,

they performed 10 consecutive isokinetic knee

extensions comprising 7 passive contractions and 3

MVCs. All MVCs were performed during the

passive isokinetic knee extensions and were

followed by passive knee flexions. The 10

consecutive isokinetic knee extensions were

repeated for 7 sets with 2-min intervals. A photo

beam unit consisting of light-emitting and light-

receiving devices was set up on either side of the left

shank such that an LED placed in front of the

subject could be switched on, to act as a light cue to

start MVC, when the shin moved through the beam

at 60 deg knee joint angle during knee extension in

the first 3 sets. Immediately before reaching 60 deg

knee joint angle, the angular velocity had reached a

constant velocity of 90 deg/s.

In the first 3 sets, subjects were asked to relax

their muscles and exert an MVC immediately they

saw the light cue during the 3rd, 6th, and 9th

repetitions. They were informed beforehand of the

timing when the light cue would come on. In the

next 4 sets, based solely on the kinesthesia acquired

during the first 3 sets, the subjects tried to exert

MVCs at the same timing as in the first 3 sets but

without the light cue. After each set, the subjects

classified the force and timing of their MVC

performance into 5 grades (1 = very poor; 2 = poor;

3 = average; 4 = good; 5 = very good).

2.3 Data Collection

The knee joint torque (KJT) exerted at MVC was

measured with data on the knee joint angle (KJA).

Electromyographic (EMG) activity was recorded

from the vastus lateralis muscle (VL) in the left leg,

using Ag/AgCl bipolar surface electrodes (diameter,

10 mm; inter-electrode distance, 20 mm; TELEmyo

DTS, Noraxon, Scottsdale, USA). EMG signals

were amplified. A/D was converted at a sampling

rate of 1.5 kHz and transmitted to a computer along

with data on KJT, KJA, and timing of the light cue.

Longitudinal sectional images of the VL were

obtained at 37 Hz using a real-time B-mode

ultrasound apparatus (Prosound α7, Hitachi Aloka

Medical, Tokyo, Japan). A linear array probe with a

scanning frequency of 7.5 MHz and a scanning

length of 60 mm was fixed with a sponge and an

elastic bandage over the VL at one-quarter from the

distal end of the estimated muscle length. The

ultrasonic images with the timing of the light cue

were transmitted to a computer and recorded onto

Blu-ray discs.

2.4 Data Processing

The EMG signals were full-wave rectified. The

following 4 reaction time characteristics were

measured: time between the light cue and onset of

EMG activity (premotor reaction time; PMT), time

between the onset of EMG activity and onset of KJT

(electromechanical delay; EMD), time between the

light cue and onset of KJT (total reaction time; TRT),

icSPORTS2014-InternationalCongressonSportSciencesResearchandTechnologySupport

and time between the light cue and peak KJT

(movement time; MTPT). Average EMG (aEMG)

was calculated over 100 ms before the light cue as a

measure of pre-activity.

For each ultrasonic image, the following 6 points

were digitized and converted to real coordinates:

point (P) where a fascicle arises from the deep

aponeurosis; point (S) where a perpendicular line

from P intersects the superficial aponeurosis; 2

points (F

and F

) on the fascicle 5 mm and 10 mm

horizontally from P, respectively; and 2 points (D

and D

) on the deep aponeurosis 5 mm and 10 mm

horizontally from P, respectively (Fig.1). Digitizing

the 6 points was repeated 3 times for each image and

the coordinates were averaged. The interior angles

∠F

and ∠F

were calculated as 2 types

of pennation angle (PA

and PA

, respectively). The

distance between points P and S was taken as the

muscle thickness.

2.5 Statistics

Data are presented as the means ± SD. One-way

analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to analyze

the differences in aEMGs, reaction times and 5-

grade evaluations of MVC performance. To test for

the effects of kinesthesia on the behaviour of the

muscle fibers, two-way ANOVAs (factors: set vs.

pennation angle) for repeated measurements were

performed. Fisher’s post hoc comparison was

performed when significance was found. The

probability level accepted for statistical significance

was p<0.05.

Figure 1: Analysis of ultrasonic image of the vastus

lateralis muscle. Six points were digitized. Two types of

pennation angle (∠F

and ∠F

, respectively)

and the muscle thickness (the distance between points P

and S) were calculated.

3 RESULTS

Increases in PA

from rest to peak KJT tended to be

larger in the 4th to 7th sets without the light cue than

in the 1st to 3rd sets with the light cue (Fig.2).

Standard deviations of the increase in PA

among the

3rd, 6th, and 9th repetitions in each set were

significantly larger in the 4th to 7th sets than in the

1st to 3rd sets (Fig.3). On the other hand, the

influence of the light cue on PA

was smaller than

that on PA

. The moving speed of P became more

unstable during MVC in the 4th to 7th sets without

the light cue. No significant differences were

observed in muscle thickness in each set.

Figure 2: Increase in pennation angle

from rest to peak

knee joint torque.

∠

P D

∠

P D

1st-3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th

Pennation angle (deg)

3rd repetition

6th

9th

Set

MuscleFiberFunctionduringRapidMovementbasedSolelyonKinesthesia

Figure 3: Standard deviation of the increase in pennation

angle from rest to peak knee joint torque. Asterisks

indicate significant differences between sets (* p<0.05, **

p<0.01).

Figure 4: Average electromyography 100ms before flexion

to 60deg knee joint angle (pre-activity). Asterisks indicate

significant differences between sets (p<0.05).

No significant differences were noted in the

increasing rate of KJT between the 1st to 3rd sets

and the 4th to 7th sets. The standard deviations in

the 3rd, 6th, and 9th repetitions increased as the set

was repeated and were significantly larger in the 7th

set than in the 1st to 3rd sets.

PMT tended to be longer in the 4th to 8th sets

than in the 1st to 3rd sets. It increased from about

40ms in the 1

to 3

sets to about 100ms in the 4

sets. Standard deviations of the PMT in the 3rd,

6th, and 9th repetitions in each set tended to be

increased in the 4th to 7th sets than in the 1st to 3rd

sets. A significant difference was observed between

the 4th set and the 1st to 3rd sets. However, no

significant differences were noted in EMD in each

set regardless of the presence of a light cue. TRT,

Table 1: Self-evaluation of MVC on a 5-point scale.

Set

1st to 3rd

4th 5th 6th 7th

Force

2.9±0.5 2.6±0.7 2.8±0.4 2.8±0.8 3.0±0.7

Timing

3.1±0.7 2.6±0.5 3.2±0.4 3.0±0.7 2.8±0.8

which is the sum of PMT and EMD, tended to be

similar to the PMT.

In terms of pre-activity, some significant

differences in aEMG were observed between the 1st

to 3rd sets and the 4th or 5th set (Fig.4). The

differences seen immediately after the light cue had

disappeared decreased as the set or repetition was

repeated, and the aEMG eventually tended to be

equal to or smaller than that in the 1st to 3rd sets.

No significant differences were observed in the

self-evaluation of MVC performance in each set.

However, the scores for both force and timing

tended to decrease only in the 4th set, which was the

first set performed without the light cue (Table 1).

4 DISCUSSION

Loss of the light cue to start MVC altered the

behavior of the muscle fibers during contraction.

Exerting MVC based solely on kinesthesia without

the light cue made the moving velocity of P unstable

and increased both PA near the deep aponeurosis

and PMT. However, the subjects themselves could

not perceive these changes; self-evaluation of the

force and timing of MVC repetitions remained

unchanged regardless of the presence of a start

(light) cue. This concurs with the findings of a

previous study which found that subjects also did

not perceive differences in the function of the

muscles during MVC repeated at a constant timing

when the timing of the muscle contraction was

unexpectedly changed (Hirose et al., 2013). This

suggests that kinesthesia does not always correspond

to the actual movement performed.

The subject’s self-evaluations tended to decrease

slightly in the 4th set only, which was the first set

without the light cue. This indicates that alterations

in the muscle behavior can be vaguely perceived

immediately after the condition for exerting MVC

was changed. Indeed, repetitive exercise has been

reported to improve the reproducibility of the

movement to adjust force and position to target

levels (Kaneko et al., 2009), and motor experience

has been reported to improve somatosensory

functions (Hayami et al., 2008). These findings

suggest that sufficient time is needed to perceive the

1st-3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th

∠

P D

∠

P D

Set

(deg)

100

120

1st-3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th

repetition

Set

Average EMG (µV)

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muscle behavior and that it is difficult to maintain

kinesthesia acquired only over a brief period.

In the sets without the light cue in this study,

significantly larger pre-activity was observed before

the onset of MVC. This implies that the muscle was

preparing to establish the timing to exert MVC. It is

known that pre-activity increases so that fatigue-

induced declines in performance do not deteriorate

further (Horita et al., 1999). Therefore, pre-activity

is likely to be a preparatory condition for generating

as large an MVC as possible at an appropriate timing

based solely on kinesthesia, which may explain the

lower self-evaluations of MVC in the 4th set. Pre-

activity gradually decreased after the 4th set and

became closer to the smaller values seen in the 1st to

3rd sets, although the standard deviations of PMT

and PA

in the 3rd, 6th, and 9th repetitions were

increased. This suggests a process whereby the

accuracy of movement based on kinesthesia is

decreased due to the disappearance of kinesthetic

information.

Behavior of the muscle fibers during MVC based

solely on kinesthesia was characterized by a large

and unstable PA

. The muscle fibers contracted

tightly to a point where the fascicle arises from the

deep aponeurosis, which appeared to compensate for

the delay in the reaction time to start MVC, and

similar muscle fiber behavior has been observed

when the timing to exert MVC was unexpectedly

changed (Hirose et al., 2013). Since muscle force is

transmitted through connective tissues to

neighboring muscles (Huijing, 2003; Sandercock

and Haas, 2009), the behaviour of the muscle fibers

near the deep aponeurosis might result from the

force transmission, and it might be influenced also

by pressure put with a probe fixed over the muscle.

Further studies are needed to elucidate the

mechanism causing strong muscle fiber contractions

near the deep aponeurosis.

Muscle strain injury was reported to occur at or

near the myotendinous junction in frog

myotendinous units when the muscle was strained

(Tidball et al., 1993). Similarly, in human muscles,

muscle failure is created by combining a large force

with substantial stretch near the aponeurosis

(Garrett, 1990), and a clinical study reported most

muscle strain injuries occurring at or near the

myotendinous junction during high-intensity or

explosive voluntary movements (Okuwaki, 2009). If

the muscle fibers are strong and shorten

unexpectedly near the deep aponeurosis with an

inappropriate timing during stretch, the contraction

will increase the inhomogeneous strain on the

aponeurosis (Zuurbier et al., 1994; Kinugasa et al.,

2008), which may cause a muscle strain injury at or

near the myotendinous junction.

In conclusion, behavior of the muscle fiber

during MVC which was exerted based solely on

kinesthesia without the light cue was characterized

by stronger and more unstable contraction near the

deep aponeurosis with longer premotor reaction time

and larger pre-activity. However, the subjects could

not perceive these changes. Such irregular muscle

fiber behavior may be related to a mechanism of

muscle injury.

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