Proposing a Next Generation of Knowledge Management Systems

for Creative Collaborations in Support of Individuals and Institutions

Featuring a Novel Approach for Meme-based Personal Knowledge Management

Ulrich Schmitt

Business School, University of Stellenbosch, PO Box 610, Bellville 7535, South Africa

Keywords: Personal Knowledge Management, Organizational KM, Knowledge Worker, Memes, Knowcations.

Abstract: Just like the personal computer revolution, it is possible that Knowledge Management (KM) will in the 21

century experience a decentralizing revolution that gives more power and autonomy to individuals and self-

organized groups. Seven decades after Vannevar Bush’s still unfulfilled vision of the Memex. Levy’s

scenario stresses the dire need to provide overdue support tools for knowledge workers in our Knowledge

Societies, not at the expense of Organizational KM Systems, but rather as the means to foster a fruitful co-

evolution. With a prototype system addressing these issues about to be converted into a viable Personal KM

system (PKMS), the author follows up on recent publications and considers the impact and potential of a

novel meme-based approach aiming to aid individuals throughout their academic and professional life and

as contributors and beneficiaries of organizational performance and in light of the anticipated next

generation of KM systems.

1 A NEXT GENERATION OF KM

The first generation of Knowledge Management

(KM) has been described as the capturing, storing,

and reusing of existing knowledge including

“systems of managing knowledge like company

yellow pages, experts outlining processes they are

involved in, creating learning communities where

employees/customers share their knowledge,

creating information systems for documenting and

storing knowledge, and so on. These first-generation

KM initiatives were about viewing knowledge as the

foremost strategic asset, measuring it, capturing it,

storing it, and protecting it. They were about treating

knowledge as an asset, recognizing how it influences

strategy, and wanting to make the most of it by

managing it properly” (Pasher and Ronen, 2011).

The second KM generation needs to focus on

creating new knowledge and innovation, a process

which starts with the “reuse or new use of existing

knowledge, adding an invention, and then creating a

new product or service that exploits this invention.”

This process requires creativity and the awareness

that old knowledge becomes obsolete. For reaping

the appropriate rewards, it is essential to

systematically exploit the knowledge captured and

created (Pasher and Ronen, 2011).

In reviewing a wider range of features for the

‘Next KM Generation’ (suggested by Sveiby, Wiig,

Snowdon, McElroy, Ponzi, Miles, St Onge, Allee),

the identified seven key themes prioritize confirm

this need, but also strongly emphasize the personal

and social nature of knowledge (Grant, 2008).

1.1 The Personal KM Agenda

Despite these accentuations and in contrast to

Organizational KM (OKM), Personal KM (PKM)

has been placed historically in a narrow

individualistic confinement (Cheong and Tsui,

2011b).

In limiting its scope, PKM has been labelled as

sophisticated career and life management with a core

focus on personal enquiry (Pauleen and Gorman,

2011) or as a means to improve some skills or

capabilities of individuals (Davenport, 2011),

negating its importance relating to group member

performance, business processes, or new

technologies.

This state surprises in light of prominent past

suggestions to develop a ‘Memex’ for making one’s

“intellectual excursions more enjoyable” (Bush,

346

Schmitt U..

Proposing a Next Generation of Knowledge Management Systems for Creative Collaborations in Support of Individuals and Institutions - Featuring a

Novel Approach for Meme-based Personal Knowledge Management.

DOI: 10.5220/0005154403460353

In Proceedings of the International Conference on Knowledge Management and Information Sharing (KMIS-2014), pages 346-353

ISBN: 978-989-758-050-5

 2014 SCITEPRESS (Science and Technology Publications, Lda.)

1945), to offer assistance in allocating one’s

“attention efficiently among the [emerging]

overabundance of information sources” (Simon,

1971), or to provide adequate organizational

leadership for building, connecting, and energizing

dynamic knowledge-creating environments and their

expansion (Nonaka, 2000). As a result, PKM

remains “a real and pressing problem”, and Bush's

dream of a ‘Memex’ has yet to be fully realized on a

wide scale (Davies 2011).

Appropriately, Wiig argues for shifting the focus

of KM toward strengthening the ability of people for

enabling them to act in the best interest of their

enterprise and its desired strategies and performance

(Wiig 2004). In this context, PKM needs - more

appropriately - to be regarded as a bottom-up

approach to KM (Pollard, 2008), as opposed to the

more traditional, top-down Organizational KM. As

such, PKM also “goes beyond Personal Information

Management” (PIM) which focusses predominantly

on information processing without the emphasis on

creating new knowledge (Cheong and Tsui, 2011a).

But, although there are many PKM tools

available, “they are not integrated with each other”,

and the “currently available PKM systems can

provide only a partial support to knowledge

workers” (Osis, 2011). “While today we have many

powerful applications for locating vast amounts of

digital information, we lack effective tools for

selecting, structuring, personalizing, and making

sense of the digital resources available to us” (Kahle,

2009).

Meanwhile, the organizational, commercial,

social and legal innovations driven by technological

progress and economic pressures continue to have

profound impacts. Work has suffered from a process

of fragmentation which will continue to accelerate.

Its implications include one’s slipping control over

constant interruptions, the loss of time for real

concentration, and less learning by observation and

reflection (Gratton, 2011). With specializations and

domain-specific knowledge on the rise, peoples’

identification has shifted from their company to their

profession, and vertical hierarchies and traditional

career ladders have been replaced by sideways

career moves between companies and a horizontal

labour market (Florida, 2012). The ‘Future of

Employment’ study estimates 47% of the current US

employment to be still at risk due to recent

technological breakthroughs able to turn previously

non-routine tasks into well-defined problems

susceptible to computerization (Frey and Osborne,

2013).

What is overdue is - in the opinion of the author -

an innovative PKM technology to provide the means

for life-long-learning, resourcefulness, creative

authorship and teamwork throughout an individual’s

academic and professional life and for his/her role as

contributor and beneficiary of organizational and

societal performance. It needs to support the notion

that knowledge and skills of knowledge workers are

portable and mobile and with it their options on

where, how, and for whom they will put their

knowledge to work.

1.2 Intents and Barriers to Overcome

In Wiig’s opinion (2011), individuals need to be

highly knowledgeable not only to function

competently as part of the workforce, but also in

their daily lives and as public citizens: “In a society

with broad personal competences, decision-making

everywhere will maximize personal goals, provide

effective public agencies and governance, make

commerce and industry competitive, and ensure that

personal and family decisions and actions will

improve societal functions and Quality of Life.” But,

“for better performance, people must [also] be

provided with resources and opportunities to do their

best. They need knowledge and understanding as

well as motivation and supportive attitudes.”

Such resources may well be autonomous PKM

capacities, networked in continuous feedback loops,

where individuals are able to determine how their

expertise will be used or exchanged with people,

communities, or organizations close to them. Levy

(2011) expects such systems - nourished by the

creative conversation of the many networked PKM

devices - to assume an elementary role that enables

the emergence of the distributed processes of

collective intelligence, which in turn feed them.

Accordingly, he sketches a scenario which

stresses the vital role of future education “to

encourage in students the sustainable growth of

autonomous capacities in PKM” and which

envisages KM to experience “a decentralizing

revolution that gives more power and autonomy to

individuals and self-organized groups” (Levy, 2011).

Although the author concurs that PKM Systems

(PKMS) are destined to become potent drivers of

human development (Schmitt, 2014b), an enabling

technological environment benefitting such a novel

solution is presently facing severe barriers wasting

individuals’ time and efforts (Schmitt, 2014f). The

remedies have been summed up into five provisions:

1. Digital personal and personalized knowledge is

always in the possession and at the personal disposal

of its owner or eligible co-worker, residing in

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personal hardware or personalized cloud-databases.

2. Contents are kept in a standardized, consistent,

transparent, flexible, and secure format for easy

retrieval, expansion, sharing, pooling, re-use and

authoring, or migration.

3. Information and functionalities can continually be

used without disruption independent of changing

one’s social, educational, professional, or

technological environment.

4. Collaboration capabilities have to be mutually

beneficial to facilitate consolidated team and

enterprise actions that convert individual into

organizational performances.

5. The PKM system designs and complex operations

are based on a concept, functionalities, and

interventions which are clearly understood and are

painlessly applied in practice.

“These provisions are aiming to strengthen

individual sovereignty by employing grass roots,

bottoms-up, lightweight, affordable, personal

applications rather than today’s top-down,

heavyweight, prohibitive, institutional approaches

and centralized developments - not at the expense of

Organizational KM Systems, but rather as the means

to foster a fruitful co-evolution” (Schmitt, 2014f).

2 A PKM PROTOTYPE SYSTEM

To facilitate such a co-evolution, a number of recent

papers have explored the related issues. The first

paper identifies challenges for individuals managing

their knowledge at the acquisition, preservation,

collaborative, capacity development, and conceptual

level and looks at approaches to address them

(Schmitt, 2012). Subsequently, these challenges

were attended to in more detail. Two papers

introduce an extension of the ignorance matrix and

discuss the role of PKM systems in making citizens

highly knowledgeable (Schmitt, 2013e 2014c). Four

papers look at the workplace and careers of

knowledge workers in the business, educational, and

developmental context (Schmitt, 2013f 2014a) and

examine PKM’s role in Higher Education (Schmitt

and Butchart, 2013a 2014g). Two papers

demonstrate the close proximity of the PKM concept

and functionalities with renowned KM models and

established organizational KM practices (Schmitt,

2013c 2013g). A poster and paper integrate the

models and practices in the PKMS concept and map

the resulting process cycles in a three-dimensional

information-space (Schmitt, 2013d 2014e).

Based on the current state of needs and

uninspiring solutions, two papers advocate the ‘Five

PKMS Provisions’ discussed by questioning the

current logics and logistics of centralized

institutional approaches and by suggesting remedies

to overcome persisting market barriers (Schmitt,

2013b 2014f). These papers concentrate on the

realities encountered and the opportunities for

change and were concluded with a paper positioning

PKM systems in the context of human development

(Schmitt, 2014b).

The papers follow-up on and set the stage for

further developing a PKM prototype used personally

for career support as a management consultant,

scholar, professor, and academic manager. With the

development platforms and cloud-based services

available now, an innovation opportunity has

presented itself for converting and advancing the

prototype into a viable PKM system across

platforms.

2.1 A Novel Meme-based Approach

As alluded to, a PKMS is supposed to serve its

master over a lifetime of educational and

professional careers and to allow his/her knowledge

to continuously evolve in the process. Thus, a

meme-based rather than document-centric design

typifies the prototype and also acts on the fifth

provision; what one has to refer to and what one

needs to store at the same time, is much smaller and

more distinct than documents.

Memes are basic building blocks of knowledge

(in the eyes of the beholder), originally described by

Dawkins (1976) as units of cultural transmission or

imitation. To live on, a meme has to be able to

survive in the medium it occupies and the medium

itself has to survive. Memes can either be encoded in

durable vectors (e.g. storage devices, books, great

art, major myths, or artefacts) spreading almost

unchanged for millennia (Bjarneskans et al., 1999),

or they succeed in competing for a host’s limited

attention span to be memorized (internalization)

until they are forgotten, codified (externalization), or

spread by the spoken word to other hosts’ brains

(socialization) with the potential to mutate into new

variants. To gain an advantage in competing for

attention and survival, it pays to form symbiotic

relationships (combination) with other memes

(memeplexes) to mutually support each other’s

fitness and to replicate together.

The PKMS explores and exploits its accessible

‘Meme or Knowledge Base’ by supporting a user’s

cognitive capacity to identify, save, recall, and

utilize the meme structures of interest. The tasks

consists of reliably storing and retrieving textual,

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visual, audio, or video input with their relevant

frames of references (e.g. origins, titles, formats,

licenses), embedded in a more-dimensional

classification system for easy access and as original,

pre-edited, and/or already re-combined versions

according to users’ individual preferences and

objectives. Easy accessibility ensures that memes

captured are able to further evolve during learning

processes and to form the symbiotic relationships

alluded to.

By digitally capturing, referencing, and

visualizing these basic information units, the system

allows the user to recall, sequence and combine

stored memes with his/her own new meme creations

(‘nemes’) for integration in any type of authoring

and sharing activity he/she would like to pursue. As

a result, the user obtains the means to retain and

build upon knowledge acquired in order to sustain

personal growth and facilitate productive

contributions and collaborations between fellow

learners and/or professional acquaintances.

A description of the detailed processes and

learning cycles has been provided in an earlier paper

(Schmitt, 2014e) and visualized in a 3xA0-poster to

complement this paper during its presentation (see

appendix). A further paper “How this Paper has been

created by leveraging a PKM System” (Schmitt

2014d) adds the corresponding hands-on user

perspective and reports how the prototype’s concept

is applied by utilizing the prototype for its creation.

Thus, as enablers of personal development and

people empowerment, decentralized autonomous

PKMS capacities will give individuals a better

chance of navigating today’s abundance of

information and changing career patterns. However,

an even larger potential lies in the creative

conversations to be prompted by them, their

contribution to the world’s knowledge base, and

their synergies with organizational KM.

2.2 Conversations and Collaborations

Collaboratively interlinking the knowledge bases

available to collectively harvest, employ and grow

accumulated knowledge subsets based on shared

contents and relationships will improve the

productivity of information seekers and suppliers

alike. Any newly gathered data, information, and

experience can be more easily assimilated due to

robust shared PKM frames of individual knowledge.

One’s attention can be focused on the creative or

innovative objectives set and the networking

required to sustain continuous feedback loops

(supported by cloud computing), instead of dealing

with redundant findings and mundane tasks of

recovering, sorting, and referencing. Moreover, the

opportunities for PKMSs to enhance learning and

knowledge acquisition are extensive, for example:

• Theoretical knowledge and professional practices

can be supplied by lecturers and trainers in meme

format to add to the stock of students’ personal

knowledge bases.

• Researching and Sensemaking can be eased and

accelerated by authors, publishers, and other

external parties who not only add their resources to

the world’s knowledge base in traditional formats

but also complement them with memes and links.

• Group and teamwork can benefit from the creative

conversations taking place which can be logged and

linked to specific memes’ contents under scrutiny or

consideration.

• Writing academic project papers, theses, and

dissertations or professional reports can benefit from

the regular feedback of supervisors, mentors, or

superiors who are able to base their progressing

recommendations on well documented modifica-

tions.

• E-learning course contents can link to meme-based

contents hosted either externally or better already

disseminated to the attendees’ individual PKM

devices for stimulating and furthering their learning

progress and growing their PKMS repositories.

• For fostering mutually beneficial relationships,

Institutions (e.g. Universities, Agencies, NGOs) can

provide their alumni, staff and clients with relevant

contents compatible with their PKM devices (news,

updates, guides, contacts, policies, standards,

advice).

• Capacity building in the development context can

be enhanced by not only providing beneficiaries

with an effective low-cost PKM application

(accessibility easiness), but by also facilitating the

authorship and contribution of own ideas based on

one’s background (expressive creativity), alone or in

collaborative environments with other users/owners

(relational interactivity), and with the opportunity to

add productively to the world’s records (ecological

reciprocity). The terms in brackets refer to Johri’s

and Pal’s (2012) four primary design characteristics

for ‘ICT for Development (ICT4D)’ ventures.

A paper currently under review extends these four

ICT4D criteria into twelve ‘PKM4D’ essentials by

correlating them to the levels of Maslow’s Extended

Hierarchy of Needs (Koltko-Rivera, 2006) with the

term ‘development’ and the dozen features firmly

geared towards future PKM education.

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2.3 Training and Education

Accordingly, all of the author’s papers and

presentations are currently captured in the form of

memes and relationships in the prototype’s

knowledge bases. To paraphrase Bush: “As an added

benefit of the trails captured, the [content provided

by the developer] becomes not only his additions to

the world's record, but entails for his [customers] the

entire scaffolding by which they [have been]

erected” (Bush, 1945).

This representation offers not only flexible

assistance and help functionalities for the user in the

deployment phase but also provides a road map

together with - as Bush put it - “an extensive mesh

of associative multi-disciplinary trails already built-

in of alternative pathways” which can be handily

tracked by a learner (Bush, 1945). These structures

will conveniently accommodate the establishment

and navigation of the PKMS eLearning courses,

planned after the completion of the face-to-face

course design.

A prior paper has already demonstrated, how the

innovative PKMS technology and its application in

academia are supportive of Academic Value Chains

and the Applied Competence Categories of Quali-

fication Frameworks (Schmitt and Butchart, 2014g).

2.4 Synergies with OKMS

An assuring outcome of the design and development

process has been that a considerable number of

renowned knowledge management philosophies and

methodologies can be neatly integrated in the overall

PKM concept proposed, including:

 Eight Building Blocks of KM

(Probst 1998, Schmitt 2012),

 Domains of Ignorance Matrix, Extensions, Wastes

(Kerwin 1993, Armour 2000, Schmitt 2013e),

 Agent and the World Model

(Boisot 2004, Schmitt 2013c),

 Concept of Extelligence

(Stewart and Cohen 1999, Schmitt 2013c),

 Sensemaking Model for Intelligence Analysis

(Pirolli and Card 2005, Schmitt 2013c),

 SECI Loop Model

(Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995, Schmitt 2013g),

 Concept of ‘Ba’

(Nonaka et al. 2000, Schmitt 2013g),

 JAIST Nanatsudaki or Seven Waterfalls Model

(Wierzbicki, and Nakamori 2007, Schmitt 2013g),

 Three Sources of Human Capital or Resources

(Gratton 2011, Schmitt 2012),

 Academic Value Chain with Ten Commitments

(Schmitt 2014g),

 Ten Applied Competencies of a Qualification

Framework (SAQA 2012, Schmitt 2013c 2014g),

 ICTD Criteria of Capable and Convivial Design

Framework (Johri and Pal 2012, Schmitt 2014f),

 Three-dimensional Information Space Model

(I-Space) (Boisot 2004, Schmitt 2013bdg 2014d).

Figure 1 shows the result of this integration

process as visualized in the triple A0-sized

conference poster accompanying the paper

presentation. The poster visualizes the relevant

processes and learning cycles within an Information-

Space Model and demonstrates how the PKM

system’s features and functionalities tie in with a

range of the KM models and practices listed.

• The left-hand poster introduces the concepts of

applied competences, intellectual, social, and

emotional capital and the respective system support

to develop, maintain, and monitor the skills and

capitals (Extended Ignorance Matrix,

P.R.O.F.I.L.E.S. Relationship Chart, Personal

Planning Portfolio, and Qualification Framework).

• The right-hand poster references further integrated

KM models supported by the prototype (Concept of

‘ba’, Building Blocks of KM, Sensemaking and

Waterfall Model, Knowledge Types/Assets).

• The proposed PKM concept’s unique meme-based

approach is based on an amalgamation of these

methodologies and its learning cycles are

transparently mapped using Boisot’s three-

dimensional information-space model (Diffusion or

Ownership, Application, and Codification) as

depicted in the centre poster.

It is obvious, that the complexity, management

and resource requirements (technology and

overheads) of an Organizational KMS far exceed

those of a Personal KMS. Nevertheless, this shared

base of methodologies and concepts, the common

resource of the world’s record, and the joint aim to

stay competitive and innovate provide strong

arguments for OKM and PKM to exploit synergies

for mutual benefit and to engage in a fruitful co-

evolution.

As Hamel (2012) pointed out, “what matters

today is how fast a company can create new insights

and build new knowledge, of the sort that enhances

customer value. […] Engagement [of employees]

may have been irrelevant in the industrial economy

and optional in the knowledge economy, but [in the

creative economy] it’s pretty much the whole game

now”.

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Figure 1: Poster Presentation of PKMS Concept. (Schmitt, 2014d updated).

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3 THE ROAD AHEAD

After the final touches to the prototype system, it is

planned to transform the prototype into a viable

PKM software application within a year by using a

mobile application development platform.

The concerns to be further elaborated in future

papers are the potential effects of PKMS’s creative

conversations on our citation-based Academic

Reputation Systems and, as pointed out, an

appropriate Training and Service Concept for

Personal Knowledge Management aimed at Higher

Education and Professional Training.

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ProposingaNextGenerationofKnowledgeManagementSystemsforCreativeCollaborationsinSupportofIndividuals

andInstitutions-FeaturingaNovelApproachforMeme-basedPersonalKnowledgeManagement

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