Teaching Students to Learn

Halvard Øysæd, Rune Andersen, Andreas Prinz and Renée Schulz

Department of Information and Communication Technology, University of Agder, Jon Lilletuns vei 9, Grimstad, Norway

Keywords: Study Strategy, Habits, ICT Supported Learning.

Abstract: The classical model of higher education studies is the sink-or-swim model, where some students are born

with certain skills or inherit them and become swimmers, whereas students without good study strategies

will not be able to keep up with the teaching in higher education and ultimately fail (they sink). This is no

longer a valid model, as it cannot handle the large amount of students enrolling despite poor study

strategies. The paper discusses how students can become swimmers in the context of higher education

through teaching them study strategy, thus enabling them to take more responsibility for their own progress.

In addition to explaining and showing examples of good study strategies, the focus is on the teaching of

good study habits and the ICT tools required for achieving good results in doing so.

1 INTRODUCTION

“We have a problem.” In an article published in

August 2013, the head of the PISA program,

Andreas Schleicher, elaborates on problems in the

Norwegian school system. For too long the focus has

been on lowering the number of students in classes

instead of focusing on good teachers and the

teaching of basic skills and good study habits (NRK,

2013). Traditionally, students that choose higher

education were the best students; they already had

an understanding of which skills were necessary in

order to achieve their goals. They were the

swimmers. Not only did they have an interest for

higher education, most of them also came from

families with academic backgrounds, which in turn,

equipped them with good study skills or even an

overall study strategy from an early age. After major

changes in the education system in Norway in 1997,

a new curriculum for primary and lower secondary

education was introduced (Veiteberg, 1996). Now

everybody should take higher education, which

resulted in a high number of unqualified students

with no basic study strategy whatsoever. These

students relied on the teachers for their

accomplishments instead of taking responsibility

themselves. They were the sinkers. The result was a

changed learning environment. With a sufficient

number of motivated and autonomous students, the

few inexperienced students would be pulled up by

the other students. Currently, the situation is

reversed. This became even more apparent with the

introduction of ICT. We, as educators, are lifesavers

in this context, using most of our energy trying to

save the ones that used to sink and hope that the

swimmers will manage on their own. This image has

been looked at through surveys made by Per Einar

Garmannslund in Norwegian senior high schools

where the results shows that the level of

procrastination increases each year as well as we see

a drop of motivation (Garmannslund, 2012). There is

reason to believe that this trend manifests itself even

more as one moves up in the educational system.

The issue we address is not about saving the ones

who cannot swim and protecting the swimmers. The

issue is to look into how we can teach everyone to

swim and how to further enhance their swimming

skills as they continue the race towards their final

goal. Transferred into an educational setting that

means to teach good study habits, thus enabling

students to understand what they are doing and

continuously try to improve. It prepares students for

lifelong learning. If all students possess these skills,

studying would become easier. In order to make this

happen, we need to identify and teach study habits.

The basis for teaching study habits is of course

teaching study skills, because habits are repeated

skills. In our context, the skills are often trivial, so

we focus on how to turn skills into habits. In terms

of the brain, the main way to learn habits is through

repetition. Actions and thoughts that are repeated

will turn into habits after some time (Lally et al.,

Øysæd, H., Andersen, R., Prinz, A. and Schulz, R.

Teaching Students to Learn.

In Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Computer Supported Education (CSEDU 2016) - Volume 2, pages 91-98

ISBN: 978-989-758-179-3

2010). The important thing to have in mind is that

we need to make sure the habits we teach are the

correct ones, because once they are internalized,

they will stick (Petri and Mishkin, 1994).

This paper addresses the need for a good study

strategy in general and gives suggestions on how to

teach the skills needed to acquire such a strategy, as

well as a few tools available to do so. We also take a

peak into the future and possible technical

improvements for achieving our goals.

The paper consists of six sections, where the first

is an introduction to the topic. The second section

explains why the teaching of study strategy is

crucial. In section 3, we will look deeper into study

strategies, while section 4 discusses how to teach

habits. Section 5 focuses on implementation: which

study habits to teach, how to do it, and how to

support it with ICT. Section 6 provides a summary

and our conclusions.

2 WHY DO WE WANT TO TEACH

STUDY STRATEGY?

We base our work on the idea that there are two

distinct areas of teaching and learning involved. The

first area is the classical area of content, defining the

knowledge and skills the students should acquire.

The second area is the area of method, defining

strategy and approaches to study. This meta-area can

be combined with the teaching of content, since

content has to be acquired using a method and a

method needs to be explained using a sample

content. This way, we envision a two-folded path for

the students consisting of content and method taught

in parallel and dependent on each other. As content

cannot be detached from the method, an average

progression of method is built-in to the content.

Students that have not yet acquired sufficient results

in their methods will get extra support to learn the

missing parts. This way, methods are taught with a

mastery learning approach, where students move to

the next level once they have mastered the previous

one.

2.1 Responsibility for Learning

Teaching in higher education has come a long way.

First, the challenge was to transfer knowledge from

experts to students, which meant to go to the best

experts and to learn from them. The main entity to

be handled was knowledge (content). In this

teacher-centered content-focused situation, the

teacher defines the content and the teaching method.

The teacher does not take into consideration whether

the students are actually able to learn the content.

The student is responsible for the learning. This

model is still used by many high-ranking professors

and universities (Parsons, 2015).

Based on students without sufficient study skills,

a stronger focus on teaching methods evolved

together with standardization of curriculum. The

important person in this teacher-centered student-

focused scenario is still the teacher. The teacher will

define the content, and the teaching method will be

adapted according to the students. This way, the

teacher is responsible for the learning. Currently,

many higher education institutions are based on this

understanding, in particular university colleges. The

main problem with this approach is that students are

different, while the methods remain the same.

Moreover, it is a problem that the teacher is

responsible for the learning and not the student.

In order to take care of that, it is possible to go

one step further and place the responsibility for

studies on the student. This results in a student-

centered approach where the student takes

responsibility for the learning content and the

teacher facilitates the learning through learning

activities. This approach has the same problem as

the first, which is that students are not prepared for

that approach to learning. The question is what skills

and methods the students need to be prepared for a

student-centered learning based on learning

activities. These skills must be taught before the

student can utilize them.

2.2 Individual Learners

In order to take responsibility in a student-centered

approach, students need to have a choice when it

comes to both content and method. This means that

the teaching has to be personalized. The introduction

of the computer and other digitized tools came to the

rescue, enabling students to learn in a way more

suited to the individual’s learning style. This is also

emphasized in the “Roadmap for Educational

Technology” published in 2010 (Woolf, 2010).

The use of computers can also facilitate the

learning of habits that benefit the learning process.

In an article in the Bangor Daily News in 2002,

Seymour Papert (2002) states: “My whole career in

education has been devoted to finding kinds of work

that will harness the passion of the learner to the

hard work needed to master difficult material and

acquire habits of self-discipline.”. With a more

student-centered approach, focus turns to multiple

CSEDU 2016 - 8th International Conference on Computer Supported Education

intelligences and different learning styles.

Acknowledging that students are different made us

understand, that in order to achieve better results,

students needed to be able to learn in ways better

suited for them.

The term multiple intelligences as introduced by

Howard Gardner in 1983, looks at differences in

cognitive abilities which in turn make us learn in

different ways (Howard, 1983). The term learning

styles, however, refers to individual differences in

the habits, preferences, or orientation towards

learning and studying (Grabner, 2012). Felder and

Silverman elaborate on how students learn in

different ways using different styles in an article

published in 1988. Their article compares students

on a number of scales pertaining to the ways they

receive and process information (Felder and

Silverman, 1988). The best approach for an educator

is to address a variety of learning styles with their

teaching plan in order to reach the largest amount of

students. In the book “Disrupting Class” it is pointed

out that students who succeed in schools today do so

not because of great teaching, but largely because

their intelligence happens to match the dominant

paradigm in use in a particular classroom

(Christensen et al., 2008). The author goes on

saying: “The need of the hour is a more student

centric model. Computer based learning holds great

promise in this context. Computer software can

enable students to learn in ways that take into

account their intelligence types and speed of

learning. Software can combine content in

customized sequences and in the process also help

teachers move towards more value adding roles.”

2.3 Teaching Study Strategy

We know we need to address each student

differently. This can be done through explicitly

teaching study strategies, enabling students to learn

in their own pace, based on their own learning style.

Education in Information and Communication

Technology (ICT) is changing rapidly, and it is

essential to be able to follow new developments at

all times. This means that that the ability to learn is

an implicit learning outcome of all ICT study

programs. However, this is unaccounted for in the

description of the study, nor taken seriously in the

forming of the study. In the descriptions of IT

related studies in Norway, very few mention study

skills explicitly as learning outcomes.

It is assumed that students will learn these

learning skills along the way. Experience shows us

that this is not the case, and an explicit focus on

study strategies is needed. Experiments referred to in

the article “Motivation and Study Habits”

experiments show that students will adopt

systematic study methods when taught about them,

even if the systems are not particularly efficient

(Entwistle et al., 1974).

Generally, all these skills enable students to take

responsibility for their own learning. Many of them

will also enable people to work effectively in teams

as well as managing projects. As it turns out, the

explicit focus on study skills will not only improve

learning, but also provide the skills needed in a

changing work reality, as also acknowledged by

(Davies et al., 2011). We are moving from a fact

based hard skill system into a system where soft

skills such as teamwork, project-based work,

communication, making presentations, collaboration

and learning to learn are important factors as well.

We often refer to many of these skills as 21th

century skills (Rotherham and Willingham, 2010).

3 WHAT IS A STUDY

STRATEGY?

There are many study skills and techniques that are

essential to a student’s learning process. An overall

strategy combines these skills and techniques. In this

Table 1: Overall Study Strategy, based on article by Per Einar Garmannslund (Garmannslund, 2012).

The Main Phases in a Learning Process

(with key process and selected skills)

Plan Execute Reflect

Task analysis

Make goals

Plan

Motivation

Expectations

Goal-oriented

Attribution

Use of strategy

Self-discipline

Task oriented focus

Evaluation

Reflection

Attribution

Success

Strategy assessment

Teaching Students to Learn

section we take a look at the common study skills

and how we can combine these to form an overall

strategy that can be used throughout the learning

process.

Based on Self-Regulated Learning (Zimmerman,

1990) and the online study technique course (Bjørke

and Øysæd, 2011), the following skills and

techniques are essential: setting goals, making plans,

following plans, managing time, working in groups,

reflection (meta-cognition), reading techniques, self-

discipline, memory techniques, and self-evaluation.

These skills match the ones in (Landsberger, 1996),

(Burns and Sinfield, 2012) and (Rose and Nicholl,

1998).

3.1 An Overall Study Strategy (PER)

Students often use study skills in an ad-hoc way to

improve their memory, reading, time management or

goal setting. Unconsciously, every student uses a

learning strategy (Garmannslund, 2012), but a good

strategy will be conscious. The combination of the

study skills and the learning process will lead to an

overall study strategy. The key element for every

student is to find the skills that are right for them,

use them and incorporate them in an overall strategy

based on the following three phases: Plan, Execute

and Reflect as shown in table 1. We later in this

paper refer to this study strategy as PER, an

acronym derived from the different phases. Such a

strategy makes sure that assignments are approached

in the best way possible and that the chances for

failure are minimal.

By developing their ability to plan, execute and

reflect, students will learn how to learn. Each of the

three main phases has essential processes that can be

achieved using a variety of supportive skills and

techniques. The students select the skills and

techniques for each process matching their

individual learning style. The different phases do not

necessarily occur in a strict order, but to teach the

different phases it is needed to emphasize how

planning, executing and reflection work together and

that phases can have sub-phases containing more

planning, executing and reflection on a different

scale or for a more specific subject, as illustrated in

Figure 1. Once the students developed their adapted

strategy, the process starts again on the next

assignment.

Figure 1: Main Steps of Study Strategy with an example.

Students choose the skills and techniques

matching their learning style and the learning

activity at hand, based on the toolbox of their own

study skills and techniques.

However, a study strategy is more than just a

toolbox. It is a habit. To establish such a habit in all

students means to create habits for the study strategy

as a whole, and for the phases as well as for some of

the main skills and techniques (tools). The students

should establish a habit of selecting the best tools

from their toolbox based on their own way of

learning, which leads to a less difficult learning

process and ensures focus on learning. Whenever an

assignment is given, the student will know how to

attack the issue and use the required skills and

techniques from the overall strategy. John H. Yeager

(2007), Director of the Center for Character

excellence at The Culver Academies, explains the

importance of habit formation. “Habit formation

allows the student to venture beyond the world of

skills to the world of meaning and purpose.” In other

words, what you do makes sense, and you do not

have to think in order to do the right thing. It just

happens.

Of course, this ideal situation is difficult to

achieve, and has to be approached in steps. We want

to select a basic set of skills and processes that can

function as a basic toolbox that invites for adaptation

and extension. By teaching these skills and making

them habits for all students at the beginning of their

higher education, there is a better chance that they

will understand and use the overall study strategy

thus enabling them to study in a more efficient and

better way.

4 HOW TO TEACH HABITS?

Independent of study strategies, the teaching of

habits is an important issue in education, as detailed

CSEDU 2016 - 8th International Conference on Computer Supported Education

in (Andersen et al., 2015). Let us assume that good

study skills can, and should, be taught. A first step

would be to establish habits as learning outcomes. In

the Norwegian education system, learning outcomes

are described using the national qualification

framework (Kunnskapsdepartementet, 2011), which

again is based on Bloom’s taxonomy. This

taxonomy identifies three domains of educational

activities: the cognitive, the affective and the

psychomotor domain. For this article, the cognitive

domain is most relevant, because it relates to

categories of knowledge including Knowledge,

Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis,

and Evaluation. When it comes to the teaching of

habits, the cognitive domain seems to have little

place for mental habits. However, we have found

that mental habits should work similar to physical

habits, which are included in Bloom’s taxonomy in

the psychomotor domain as Mechanism (a skill that

has become habitual). A similar category would also

be needed in the cognitive domain in order to

capture mental habits, e.g. related to study strategy,

see also (Andersen et al., 2015).

4.1 Learning Habits

Basically, there are two ways of learning habits,

either through repetition, or through transfer.

4.1.1 Learning Habits using Repetition

Actions and thoughts that are repeated will

eventually turn into habits (Lally et al., 2010).

Teaching habits via repetition is discussed at length

in (Fogg, 2009). Fogg identifies three elements of

making habits work, motivation, ability and triggers.

Motivation is the element that describes the drive

behind the work to establish a habit, the power that

establishes the habit. Ability relates to the

possibilities to bring the habit to life, and is

generally more related to the underlying skills for

the habits. Ability is also the element most described

in Bloom’s taxonomy. Finally, Fogg claims that

there needs to be trigger to create a habit, such that

the starting of the skill is connected to something

that will enable it in reality. The trigger is the

element that starts the repetition, like a certain time

(every evening) or a certain event (at the start of

every lecture).

In terms of study strategy, the ability is often the

easiest element, as the skills needed are very basic:

reading, explaining, asking questions, finding

questions, etc. Still, some of the more intricate study

skills might need some exercise before all students

are familiar with them, for example summarizing a

lecture. Learned study skills will provide positive

reinforcement for the use of the acquired skills in

order to develop a good study strategy. In this paper,

we swiftly move over the skills since their teaching

follows the usual teaching patterns.

Motivation can be extrinsic or intrinsic. In the

extrinsic case, both negative and positive

reinforcement can be used, suggesting a

behaviouristic approach. Intrinsic motivation, where

the learning itself is the reward, is often preferable,

but as long as habits are established, the end result is

the same: The habit is established and is done so

without conscious thinking (Stone et al., 2009),

(Pink, 2011). In the behaviouristic approach, the

idea is to use (external) stimulus in order to make

students do the repetitions. Negative reinforcement

is easier to apply, but has limited success. Still, the

pressure may lead to the desired result (the habit).

On the other hand, positive reinforcement, by using

positive group pressure towards the habit as well as

teacher feedback and peer review is recommended.

Lately, gamification (Deterding, 2012) has been

pushed as a good framework to provide

reinforcement and thus enable repetition.

Finally, the trigger can be provided by the

teacher in the teaching process, or it could be

provided by a supporting system notifying the

student that the next repetition is due. This is also

related to the gamification approach discussed in the

last paragraph.

Using repetition and practice to teach habits has

a long tradition with learning by doing, as indicated

in (Andersen et al., 2015). Learning by doing as

presented in (Dewey, 1904) and (Aleven and

Koedinger, 2002) focuses on establishing patterns of

action that come about by repeated exercise in a life-

like environment. This transfers skills into habits.

Robert Schank presents an approach using GBS

(Goal-Based Scenarios) in (Schank et al., 1999). We

suggest a similar approach in section 5 when we

look into the teaching of specific skills we want to

turn into habits.

4.1.2 Learning Habits through Transfer

It is possible to avoid the tedious process of

repetition, if a similar habit is already in place. Then

the new habit is learned through transfer. Transfer of

learning is defined as something that occurs when

learning in one context enhances (positive transfer)

or undermines (negative transfer) a related

performance in another context (Perkins and

Salomon, 1992). However, the authors emphasize,

Teaching Students to Learn

transfer only becomes interesting as a psychological

and educational phenomenon in situations where the

transfer would not be thought of as ordinary

learning. They also show that the chance of transfer

occurring is most likely when the learning situation

is as contextualized as possible, meaning as similar

to previous practice as possible. This indicates that

students having used project management strategy or

other strategies in other contexts have a higher

chance of learning good study habits through

transfer. Transfer of learning is often connected to

intrinsic motivation and an understanding of the

relevance of the habit.

5 IMPLEMENTATION

When working on the implementation of PER, we

looked at essential skills for the students to look at

and acquire. After selecting skills that fit their own

learnings styles, we introduced a concrete way to

utilize these skills.

5.1 Selection of Skills for PER

As the main focus is on establishing the

aforementioned three phases and their underlying

processes, we need to select at least one skill for

each process. The skills are chosen as independently

as possible based on a particular learning style and

therefore beneficial for later usage in different

classes as well.

• Planning phase

o Task Analysis: We have chosen the two skills

goal setting and planning using a TODO list

with action points for task analysis. The

students should set a goal according to the

SMART criteria. For the TODO list, the

students chose which study skills they want

to use on the learning activity, a timeframe

and dividing larger tasks into smaller ones.

o Motivation: The majority of students will be

motivated in the beginning of the semester

because they want to attend the program. We

do not select skills for this process, but it is

partly supported by goal setting.

• Execution Phase

o Use of Strategy: Until the students have

mastered several skills it is hard to use

strategy, which is why the use of strategy is

not selected for the basic skills. The task

analysis and evaluation processes will help

getting focus on the chosen skill and how to

improve its use.

o Self-discipline: We select an important skill

for self-discipline: time logging. Time

logging is a learning activity that helps

students to stay focused on the task and that

supports self-discipline.

o Time logging also supports focus on tasks.

The same skill is used for both processes.

• Reflection Phase

o Evaluation: The students use reflection by

comparing their result with their goal and

their chosen skill. Based on the outcome of

the comparison, the study strategy can be

adapted and documented using an action

plan.

Focusing and improving on the following four skills:

goal setting, TODO list, time logging and reflection,

will make the students better suited to swim in a

learning society. Repeating the use of these skills in

several learning activities will turn those skills into

habits.

For each of these skills we introduce optional

ICT tools for the students, which they can use. For

goal setting we offer the goal tracking system

42goals.com, for the making a TODO list we

propose notepad as a simple tool or the more

specialized tool trello.com. For time logging we

recommend the project management system

Jira.com or Microsoft Excel spreadsheets. Students

may use other ICT tools in addition or in exchange

to the tools we suggest.

5.2 Introducing PER for the Students

To teach the essential processes we need to create

learning activities that correspond to the skills the

students require in order to learn PER. We also have

to make the learning activities available for many

students. This indicates the need for a learning

platform.

In order to achieve our goal for teaching PER,

we have developed a simple pilot system named

Student 2.0. In this system, we have focused on the

learning activities for PER. In combination with the

Student 2.0 system, we also used regular lectures to

explain the theory of study strategies and techniques

in a blended learning environment. We are currently

implementing these methods for the students.

The students are confronted with the selected

skills in the first week of the study and later on

through the basic engineering course (TFL115). In

the first study week, the importance of study strategy

CSEDU 2016 - 8th International Conference on Computer Supported Education

was explained together with the general PER model

as presented in section 3. In the TFL115 course, an

incremental teaching strategy was used. The students

got an explanation of the skills, and they were given

the task to choose a traditional learning activity

(lecture, exercise, homework) in the first week to

train the study strategy approach as follows.

P (Planning Phase): The students would pick their

favourite activity, and set a goal and make a plan for

this learning activity.

E (Execution Phase): During the week, the students

would use time sheets for registering hours with

their selected tool.

R (Reflection Phase): Finally, students were

encouraged to reflect on their plan, goal and how

their execution of the plan had worked. They used

their time sheets to describe their results in the

learning activity and suggested improvements.

Both the planning and the reflection phase were

peer-reviewed by the other students using the

platform NovoEd.com.

These PER learning activities will be the same

for the students each week for one semester. By

doing this for 10 or more weeks we hope that the

students will create habits for the essential processes

in the PER strategy.

So far, more than 100 students have handed in

their plan and reflection each week for 7 weeks and

more than 80 of the students have peer assessed

more than 5 of their peer’s plans and reflections. The

exercises have been mandatory for the students.

We ran a survey similar to the one by

Garmannslund after the first week. The 167

responses show that the students lack execution

skills that are necessary for them to be able to work

on their studies efficiently. This corresponds with

the findings Garmannslund have had for kids in

senior high school mentioned in the introduction.

We are going to perform another survey at the end

of the semester to establish that our PER approach

had an impact on the student’s executions skills and

study strategies.

5.3 Future ICT Support for PER

In the pilot implementation of Student 2.0 we have

only implemented the basic learning activities for

PER. In the future, we would like to extend the

Student 2.0 project and develop a platform with

more functionality to better support both students

and teachers. Additionally, we would like to include

gamification elements in order to make it even more

motivating for the students to get started and

continue to use PER.

Apart from supporting learning activities in the

scope of PER, a future Student 2.0 system should

also contain learning objects related to PER, making

it self-contained. This also makes it natural to further

develop Student 2.0 to include videos and

documents explaining the PER phases and

processes.

It is important that we devise an ICT framework,

which can help support the teaching of a study

strategy. The main contributors should be the

students since they should be responsible for their

own progression.. Therefore, the students are the

main users with the teachers being observers with

the opportunity to supervise and to contribute in

terms of goal and task setting.

After creating a new project (which can be a

course as well as a project within a course, or a task)

students go through the three different strategy

phases. First they do the planning. In the planning

phase students define their goal and create a TODO

list. These steps are system-defined tasks that are

handled like any other task. Being active in the

system creates a log entry for the day. The students

can see when they did which activities in which

project and if they do well according to their plan.

The system will give feedback on the different

work phases the students complete, regardless if it is

a course, project or a single task. Frequent feedback

and redoing of the PER phases will provide the

needed repetition that is needed in order to create

habits. For feedback, the systems should also

provide the possibility to use peer evaluation on

goals and reflection.

Means of gamification (the use of game elements

in non-game context (Deterding et al., 2011)) will

then be used to motivate the students to use the

system more frequently. This can include gamified

feedback layers, game based structure, interaction

concepts as well as story design and flow. Hidden

achievements and encouragements can support the

effect of building skills and habits through positive

reinforcement.

6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The ability to master a study strategy based on skills

suited for the individual student is important. In

order to achieve this ability we need to look into

how students learn and which skills might be the

right ones for each student. This enables them to

internalize the study strategy pattern identified

Teaching Students to Learn

through its three phases: planning, executing and

reflection (PER). In this paper we have looked at the

importance of a good overall study strategy. We

have identified basic skills, which make it possible

for a student to create an individual study strategy.

We have suggested how to teach these skills and

ways to work with them to the point where they go

from being basic skills to becoming habits. A good

study strategy will make studying easier as well as

include more students in the process.

The important part will be to focus on training

students how to swim from the first moment we

meet them and make sure they are able to manage on

their own from the start. Then the future work for

educators will be to perfect the swimming

techniques. When the study strategy becomes

habitual, we have finally contributed to the learning

goal we all have: teaching the students how to learn.

REFERENCES

Aleven, V. A. & Koedinger, K. R. 2002. An effective

metacognitive strategy: Learning by doing and

explaining with a computer-based Cognitive Tutor.

Cognitive science, 26, 147-179.

Andersen, R., Prinz, A. & Øysæd, H. 2015. How to Teach

Habits? Digital Media, Tools, and Approaches in

Teaching and Their Added Value. Waxman.

Bjørke, S. Å. & Øysæd, H. 2011. Study strategies and

study techniques [Online]. Universitet i Agder: PULS.

Available: http://grimstad.uia.no/puls/studystrategy/

[Accessed June 15 2015].

Burns, T. & Sinfield, S. 2012. Essential study skills: the

complete guide to success at university, Sage

publications.

Christensen, C. M., Horn, M. B. & Johnson, C. W. 2008.

Disrupting class: How disruptive innovation will

change the way the world learns, McGraw-Hill New

York, NY.

Davies, A., Fidler, D. & Gorbis, M. 2011. Future work

skills 2020.

Deterding, S. 2012. Gamification: designing for

motivation. interactions, 19, 14-17.

Deterding, S., Dixon, D., Khaled, R. & Nacke, L. From

game design elements to gamefulness: defining

gamification. Proceedings of the 15th International

Academic MindTrek Conference: Envisioning Future

Media Environments, 2011. ACM, 9-15.

Dewey, J. 1904. The relation of theory to practice in

Education 1.

Entwistle, N., Thompson, J. & Wilson, J. 1974.

Motivation and study habits. Higher Education, 3,

379-396.

Felder, R. M. & Silverman, L. K. 1988. Learning and

teaching styles in engineering education. Engineering

education, 78, 674-681.

Fogg, B. J. A behavior model for persuasive design.

Proceedings of the 4th international Conference on

Persuasive Technology, 2009. ACM, 40.

Garmannslund, P. E. 2012. Læreren og elevenes lærings-

og arbeidsvaner. Forskning og utvikling i praksis, 2.

Grabner, R. H. 2012. Multiple Intelligences and Learning

Styles. Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning.

Springer.

Howard, G. 1983. Frames of mind: The theory of multiple

intelligences. NY: Basics.

Kunnskapsdepartementet. 2011. Nasjonalt

kvalifikasjonsrammeverk for livslang læring [Online].

Available: https://www.regjeringen.no/globalassets/

upload/kd/vedlegg/kompetanse/nkr2011mvedlegg.pdf.

Lally, P., Van Jaarsveld, C. H., Potts, H. W. & Wardle, J.

2010. How are habits formed: Modelling habit

formation in the real world. European Journal of

Social Psychology, 40, 998-1009.

Landsberger, J. 1996. Study guides and strategies

[Online]. [Accessed June 15 2015].

NRK. 2013. PISA-sjefen mener norsk skole har et stort,

skjult problem [Online]. nrk.no: NRK. Available:

http://www.nrk.no/valg2013/pisa-sjef_-_norges-store-

problem-1.11186771 [Accessed June 15 2015].

Papert, S. 2002. Hard fun. Bangor Daily News.

Parsons, K. M. 2015. Message to My Freshman Students

[Online]. TheHuffingtonPost.com. Available: http://

www.huffingtonpost.com/keith-m-parsons/message-to

-my-freshman-st_b_7275016.html [Accessed June 15

2015].

Perkins, D. N. & Salomon, G. 1992. Transfer of learning.

International encyclopedia of education, 2.

Petri, H. L. & Mishkin, M. 1994. Behaviorism,

cognitivism and the neuropsychology of memory.

American Scientist, 30-37.

Pink, D. H. 2011. Drive: The surprising truth about what

motivates us, Penguin.

Rose, C. P. & Nicholl, M. J. 1998. Accelerated learning

for the 21st century: The six-step plan to unlock your

master-mind, Dell Books.

Rotherham, A. J. & Willingham, D. T. 2010. “21st-

Century” Skills. American Educator, 17.

Schank, R. C., Berman, T. R. & Macpherson, K. A. 1999.

Learning by doing. Instructional-design theories and

models: A new paradigm of instructional theory, 2,

161-181.

Stone, D. N., Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. 2009. Beyond

talk: Creating autonomous motivation through self-

determination theory. Journal of General Management,

34, 75.

Veiteberg, J. 1996. Læreplanverket for den 10-årige

grunnskolen, [Oslo], Nasjonalt læremiddelsenter.

Woolf, B. P. 2010. A roadmap for education technology.

Yeager, J. M. 2007. Internalizing Virtue – Skills to Habits

in Our Students [Online]. Available: http://

positivepsychologynews.com/news/john-yeager/20070

710325 [Accessed June 15 2015].

Zimmerman, B. J. 1990. Self-regulated learning and

academic achievement: An overview. Educational

psychologist, 25, 3-17.

CSEDU 2016 - 8th International Conference on Computer Supported Education