On the Development of Strategic Games based on a Semiotic

Analysis: A Case Study of an Optimized Tic-Tac-Toe

César Villacís, Walter Fuertes, Mónica Santillán, Hernán Aules, Ana Tacuri,

Margarita Zambrano and Edgar Salguero

Computer Siences Department, Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas - ESPE, Sangolquí, Ecuador

Keywords: Semiotics, Tic-Tac-Toe, Videogames, Artificial Intelligence, Semiotic Models for Videogames.

Abstract: A picture can express something instead of having a thousand words that cannot do it. This phrase, which

symbolically connotes a whole scheme of a signs system, is known as Semiotics. This paper presents the

process of an educational video game development based on semiotic analysis. We used Extreme Programing

Agile Methodology combined with a proposal of the modified Elemental Tetrad Game Design Model to

develop a video game known as “Tic-Tac-Toe”. The mathematical model was implemented with Artificial

Intelligence algorithms and a graphical user interface including Semiotics; this was optimized for producing

an enjoyable and interactive environment. With the purpose of stimulating cognitive development of children,

this research combines theories about stimulating cognitive development of children; game design model,

Semiotic Analysis harnesses the Model of Aleferenko, and uses algorithms based on heuristics and numerical

methods in client-server architecture. The concept was tested with a representative sample of seven to eleven

years old children. The results demonstrated that educational video games with Semiotics stimulate the

cognitive development of children.

1 INTRODUCTION

Aware of the importance of psychomotor activity and

its impact on stimulating thought; teachers and early

childhood specialists value motor activities and

games. One of the most fundamental resources

available for educators is educational video games.

Therefore, researchers are permanently exploring

new learning strategies to encourage children through

educational video games. Nowadays, semiotic

domains are emerging more notably and potentially,

could make the videogame more attractive for

children. One example of this is the customisation of

the avatar in the first-person-shooter video games

(Gee, 2008).

Visualization is better than verbal description; this

phrase symbolically connotes a whole system of

signs. Its analysis or decoding is called Semiotics.

According to the Oxford Advanced Learner's

Dictionary, Semiotic is “a general philosophical

theory of signs and symbols that deals especially with

their function in both artificially constructed and

natural languages and comprises syntactic, semantics,

and pragmatics”. It studies the phenomena and

objects of significance, sign systems, and the process

of senses production (Halliday, 1978).

The connection between educational video games

and semiotics has been studied for three decades. The

study of Myers (1991) discusses symbols within

computer games and how those symbols are

transformed during play. Thorne et al. (2012)

describe an exploratory study of the massively

multiplayer online games with a complex form of

semiotic ecologies. Huber (2013) addresses the

problem by proposing a model for the interpretation

of videogames based on the semiotic theory of

Charles S. Peirce. Ruiz et al. (2014) used videogames

to help High School students to improve their

understanding of numerical evaluation of algebraic

expressions. Baceviciute et al. (2014) explain the

convergence and hybridization process between

cognitive sciences, computer science and Artificial

Intelligence (AI). Kendall, 2015 analyses serious

games and Semiotics separately. Those studies claim

for an integration of semiotic and artificial

intelligence in video games.

The present study developed a process of an

educational video game based on semiotic analysis;

and tested the hypothesis of an application of

Villacís, C., Fuertes, W., Santillán, M., Aules, H., Tacuri, A., Zambrano, M. and Salguero, E.

On the Development of Strategic Games based on a Semiotic Analysis: A Case Study of an Optimized Tic-Tac-Toe.

In Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Enterprise Information Systems (ICEIS 2016) - Volume 1, pages 425-432

ISBN: 978-989-758-187-8

425

Semiotics in the Tic-Tac-Toe videogame improves

the motivation of the childhood senses and stimulates

their cognitive development.

We have used the Extreme Programing Agile

Methodology (XP) combined with the Elemental

Tetrad Game Design Model, in order to ensure the

quality of the software using Artificial Intelligence

techniques in client-server architecture. The video

game that has been developed and optimized is called

Tic-Tac-Toe. The concept has been tested with a

representative sample of seven to eleven years old

children at an elementary school.

The key contributions of this study are: (1) two

prototypes software developed for the Tic-Tac-Toe

game, one with Semiotics; (2) a class library

implemented that represents the environment and the

rules of a third party using Artificial Intelligence

based on heuristics and numerical methods; and (3) a

game developed combining a novel mathematical

model and semiotic analysis that requires algorithms

of Software Engineering to optimize the Tic-Tac-

Toe’s ability to apply learning theories.

2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 The Elemental Tetrad Game

Design Model

This model is currently used for game design.

According to Gibson (2014), this model uses the

events of the story and states purpose of the game. It

evaluates the human-computer interaction by using

the game technologies. Furthermore, it separates the

basic elements of a game into four sections: (1)

Mechanics: the rules for interaction between the

player and the game; (2) Aesthetics: describe how the

game is perceived by the five senses; (3) Technology:

this element covers all the underlying technology that

makes the game work; (4) Story: this describes the

sequence of events in the game.

2.2 Extreme Programming (XP)

XP is an agile software development methodology. It

is a lightweight methodology using a set of existing

software development practices in conjunction

(Schneider, 2003). According to Beck (2000), the

project lifecycle of XP includes the following phases:

Exploration, Planning, Iterations to Release, the

Product ionizing, and Maintenance. The practices

taken from XP focused on software coding needed for

the game.

2.3 Semiotic Analysis of Aleferenko

This model integrates several areas of the knowledge,

and allows making a connotative and denotative

analysis of the symbols. For Aleferenko (Tokarev,

2014) a pyramid constitutes the coalition of the

Pierce’s triad. It includes two new elements:

Meaning/ Connotation; and Significant/ Denotation.

This allows to create a pyramid organized with the

following elements: (1) Sign; (2) Object/Referent; (3)

Significant/ Denotation; (4) Meaning/Connotation;

and Concept. The pyramid of Aleferenko integrates

the bases of Semiotics. In contrast to Pierce and Frege

(Wisse, 2002), Aleferenko considers outlined models

and creates a new complete model, where the

connotation is the agent of analysis that engenders a

deep knowledge that leaves an appropriation of the

receiver.

2.4 Theories to Stimulate Cognitive

Development of Children

Tic-Tac-Toe stimulates cognition of children, and the

game is part of the culture as it is included in common

educational practices. Lev Vygotsky (1967) assigned

the game into the category of instrument and socio-

cultural promoter of children’s mental development,

and the results showed that facilitates the

development of higher functions. These are acquired

through interaction with the surrounding world. The

approach of mediation according to Vygotsky is

perceived as the presence of people, objects, and

situations that interact in various socio-cultural

contexts, which can be verbal, visual and physical,

and can generate experiences that affect cognitive

development. Vygotsky elaborated the concept

known as Zone of Proximal Development Theory

(Brown, 1999), explained as: (1) the distance between

the actual developmental level is determined by the

ability to independently solve a problem; and, (2) the

level of potential development is determined by

problem solving under the mediation of an adult.

Feuerstein (1991) considers that the subject’s

interactions with the environment can have two

modalities: (1) direct exposure to stimuli; and, (2)

learning experiences through mediators. As

suggested by Feuerstein, it is crucial to consider that

all human beings are modifiable. To be able to fulfil

this condition, we should understand mediation as an

intervention strategy that tries to affect the body of

mediator, seeking greater efficiency in the process of

information and therefore the cognitive structure.

Finally, Lipman (2002), developed his educational

philosophical proposal known as “critical thinking”,

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that is interested in forming a thought careful, orderly,

prudent and reasonable. In this sense the children are

be able to make judgments as part of the practice of

their own learning process in which case an

educational game is considered like a learning

activity.

All these theoretical assumptions analysed

converge in cognitive modifiability through the visual

mediation using games. We conclude therefore, that

children exposed to the complexity experience of the

games, shows increased cognitive skills such as

spatial navigation, reasoning, memory and three

dimensional perceptions.

3 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

3.1 Development Process

The process of development of the video game with

Semiotics was based on the life cycle of XP that

performs iterative and incremental tasks (Beck,

2000), (Schneider, 2003). The research team carried

out an incremental delivery of the product in each

iteration.

Figure 1: The Extreme Programming iterations game.

The experiment considered three iterations: (1)

The design and development of the graphic user

interfaces of the video game, for which we applied

elementary Tetrad Game Design modified Model; (2)

The construction of the inference engine, based in

technical heuristics of Artificial Intelligence

implemented with numerical methods that generate

different levels of difficulty in the game; (3) The

processing and storage of information, that keeps the

users scores in files, considering the three levels of

difficulty. In these iterations, liberated parts of the

product were inspected and evaluated to increase the

functionality and also to improve the quality

compared to the previous versions of the game

(Villacís, 2015), which has been implemented

without using Semiotics. Fig. 1 shown the XP

iterations game model modified based in the proposed

model by Drake et al. (2006).

3.2 Design and Development of the

GUI

The design and the development of the graphic user

interface of the Tic-Tac-Toe video game were based

on the Elementary Tetrad Game Design Model

(Schell, 2014). For each one of the four sections of

this model, we considered a series of elements related

to programming computer games proposed by

Walnum (2001), among them are: (1) Game design;

(2) Graphic design; (3) Controls and interfaces; (4)

Generation of sound; (5) Image handling; (6)

Animation; (7) Algorithms; (8) Artificial

Intelligence; (9) Game Testing. Additionally, it was

necessary to include the Storyboard proposed by Páez

(2013). Based on all of these elements, we propose

the modified model illustrated in Fig. 2. The

Mechanics section includes game algorithms and

Artificial Intelligence algorithms. The Technology

section includes graphic design, animation and image

handling. The Aesthetics section includes control and

interfaces, sound generation and game testing. The

story section includes game design and storyboard.

Figure 2: A proposal of the modified Elemental Tetrad

Game Design Model for this study.

3.2.1 Game Design

The concept was based on real-world events related

to the design and creation of boards for the game of

Tic-Tac-Toe. This is a fun game that appeals to both

children and adults because it is a game of strategy.

On the Development of Strategic Games based on a Semiotic Analysis: A Case Study of an Optimized Tic-Tac-Toe

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3.2.2 Graphic Design

The game screen of Tic-Tac-Toe has a form

programmed in C# .NET, which is very similar to the

dialogue frames of the Windows System. In this form

is placed a series of objects that allowed to structure

the game, such as: (1) Nine buttons for checkers,

mathematically located in specific locations; (2) Four

buttons to manage the game options (i.e. New,

Choose players, Choose language and Exit); (3) Four

group boxes or containers (Group Box); (4) One label

for static text; (5) Four radio buttons to control the

different levels of the game; (6) One picture box,

which shows an animated icon; (7) A menu bar with

File, Help and View options, and their respective

submenus.

3.2.3 Control and Interfaces

Implementation

The GUI was constructed based on components

(COM+), and basic controls (ActiveX) that provided

the Visual C# .NET programming language. The

scores in the game were stored in XML flat files, and

the data are displayed within the Data Grid View

control. Fig. 3 illustrates the GUI of the game:

Figure 3: Graphical User Interface of the Tic-Tac-toe game

using Semiotics.

3.2.4 Image Handling

We organized all the visual interfaces to handle

images via ActiveX controls. For example, the

Picture Box control allows loading animated gif files

and the Button control is designed and constructed

with geometric shapes which can load images in

various formats. We have defined four categories in

the game related to the nine buttons of the board,

which are available for the user being: (1) Super hero:

Selection between twelve super heroes and twelve

villains; (2) Princesses: Selection between twelve

princesses of fairy tales and twelve villains of those

same fairy tales; (3) Animals: Selection between

twenty four animals among which are both wild and

domestic animals; (4) Miscellany characters:

Selection between several well-known children’s

characters with their respective antagonistic

characters. Finally no special background (i.e.

Background Image property) was included, only

colours, which is more attractive to children and

generates much less distraction.

3.2.5 Sound Generation

Because the real world is a place with sound, the

game needs to include sound so that it seems realistic.

The Tic-Tac-Toe game is not the exception.

Therefore, MIDI sounds type was implemented using

Windows Media Player control.

3.2.6 Animation

A virtual assistant and speech recognition libraries for

both: Spanish and English language were

implemented using MS Agents by Microsoft.

3.2.7 Game Algorithms

One of the most important algorithms in the game is

the algorithm that allows two users to play each other

on the same computer or a user to play against the

computer with AI. Depending on the level that the

user chooses for which the function Play() has been

implemented inside the form frmTicTacToe whose

algorithm is presented at the end of this subsection.

The parameters of the managed objects explained

above are: (1) board: whose value depends on the

category chosen by the user; (2) btnTicTacToe: whose

value depends on which the button has been clicked

by the user; (3) type: whose value depends on the

fictitious good or bad character chosen by the user;

(4) player1: whose value depends on the character,

animal or object chosen by the user based of the type

and the board; (5) player2: this parameter represents

the non-player character (NPC) selected by the user

for the confrontation; (6) grbTicTacToe: this control

represents the container that hold the nine buttons and

when the game is over this control disables these

buttons; (7) dgvData: this control shows the final

results of the players saved on XML files; (8)

listButtons: this parameter is used exclusively by the

non-player character (NPC) in which case the button

is selected depends on the heuristics techniques of

Artificial Intelligence.

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3.2.8 Artificial Intelligence Algorithms

Within the context of this study, the Artificial

Intelligence algorithms focuses on providing capacity

to computers to perform tasks that require human

intelligence. This means, the ability of the computer

to act or participate as an opponent in the game

(Walnum, 2001). In the Tic-Tac-Toe game, the

computer has the ability to play with the user,

according to three different levels of difficulty: basic

level, intermediate level, and advanced level. For the

Artificial Intelligence model of the application we

have used both weak and strong heuristics techniques.

Here we use numeric method based on numeric series

that is represented by linked lists and arrays. These

kind of structures store different movements made by

the same application that is the non-player character

(NPC) controlled by the computer that plays with the

user. The numeric method based on finite series is

indicated in Table 1, where each finite series has been

obtained based on a sum that represents a value

accumulated in a certain row, column or diagonal of

the Tic-Tac-Toe game. In Table 2, the initial state of

the whole array is depicted (i.e., that is zero) and it

corresponds to an empty space or a free cell. Some

cases are described below:

Table 1: Numeric method based on finite series.

 Case 1: The non-player character (NPC)

obstructs the user. In this case the following

instruction should be considered: if ((a = 2) ˅ (b

= 2) ˅ (c = 2) ˅ (d = 2) ˅ (e = 2) ˅ (f = 2) ˅ (g =

2) ˅ (h = 2)) then: if (v[k] = 0) then v[k]:= 3 →

NPC obstructs the user;

 Case 2: The non-player character (NPC) wins.

In this case the following instruction should be

considered: if ((a = 6) ˅ (b = 6) ˅ (c = 6) ˅ (d =

6) ˅ (e = 6) ˅ (f = 6) ˅ (g = 6) ˅ (h = 6)) then: if

(v[k] = 0) then v[k]:= 3 → NPC beats the user;

 Case 3: Obstruct in the diagonals. In this case

the following instruction should be considered:

if ((x = 5) ˅ (y = 5)) then: if (v[k] = 0) then

v[k]:= 3 → NPC obstructs the user;

 Case 4: Obstruct in the corner squares. In this

case the following instruction should be

considered: if (((p = 2) ˅ (q = 2) ˅ (r = 2) ˅ (s =

2)) ˄ (v[k] = 0)), where k = 0, 2, 6, 8; then: if

(v[k] = 0) then v[k]:= 3 → NPC obstructs the

user in the corners close to the edges occupied

by the user.

Table 2: Finite State Machine of the Game.

Object Weight

User 1 1

Non-player character (NPC) 3

Blank space 0

3.2.9 Semiotic Model of the Game

Figure 4 shows the model of Aleferenko (Tokarev,

2014) which completes: K=S+O+D+C; where K is

the Concept, S is the Sign, O it is the object, D it is

the denotation and C it is the connotation. This model

demonstrates the real state of the construction of the

knowledge on the receiver’s part since it is unable to

jump the denotation and connotation process to arrive

at the concept.

In the first instance, the sign is the word that

corresponds to the game. In our case the sign begins

the code process to obtain knowledge. In the second

instance, the object referent corresponds to the code

of the game. In the third instance, the receiver passes

to the connotative process where it identifies the signs

as symbols. Therefore it is not an arbitrary process of

significance. The connotation process is in the fourth

instance, where the receivers are the children that play

the game, in an appropriate atmosphere. Also,

according to their preferences, the sign that doesn’t

has the character of arbitrary in this case because they

become symbols. For instance, in the case of the

Superman – sign (the symbol of a super hero), which

would correspond to K that is the concept of the sign

S, and in similar form is Lex Luthor – sign (the

antagonistic or villainous symbol with respect to

superman). Finally, the result is the concept or

knowledge decoded due to the process of connotation

of the sign.

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3.2.10 Principle of Arbitrariness of the Sign

According to Holdcroft (1991), the principle of

arbitrariness of the sign consists in the bond among

the meaning with the significance of arbitrary. This,

since the sign is equivalent to the association of a

significant with a meaning. For this reason the game

of the Tic-Tac-Toe is decoded like it was mentioned

previously, being a matrix with two elements: a ‘cero’

and an ‘x’ letter, generally constructed in paper or

with wood. The concept or significance of Tic-tac-

Toe is not bound for any relationship with the

sequence of sounds “t-i-c-t-a-c-t-o-e” that serves by

itself significance to the word. It could be represented

by any other sequence of sounds, for example the

“Tic-Tac-Toe” game in English corresponds to “Tres

en Raya” in Spanish and in Russian, it corresponds to

“крестики-нолики”, where it doesn't only change the

sound but even the system of signs that doesn't

correspond to the Latin alphabet, and the system

corresponds to the Cyrillic one instead.

Figure 4: The semiotic model Aleferenko for the game.

3.2.11 Testing the Game

We applied the game to a public school, forty seven

to eleven years old children were randomly chosen to

play the game during 30 minutes. A group of children

were exposed to the traditional Tic-Tac-Toe game

(i.e. without Semiotics) versus the optimized Tic-

Tac-Toe game (with Semiotics). After, the children

tested the game, we proceeded to perform statistical

processing of the scores provided by the game. As

noted in this study, it has been optimized as the Tic-

Tac-Toe game, incorporating the semiotic model of

Aleferenko. This research has involved superheroes,

princesses, other animals and world comics.

4 EVALUATION RESULTS AND

DISCUSSION

4.1 Results of the Evaluation

There were differences of comic figures preferences.

Fig. 5 illustrates that there is a superhero that has the

popularity of 100% (i.e. Hulk), followed by another

one with 81.8% (i.e. Spiderman). The other two with

36.4% (i.e. Superman), and Wonder Woman with

27.3%. Batman and Green Arrow with 18.2% and

9.1%, respectively. This means that two superheroes

were known to more than half of the children with

more than 50% of the total popularity, while 14 other

superheroes yielded amounts between 18.2% and

36.4% on average, and just six below 9.1%. This

leads to the conclusion that 16 boys were interested

in recreational games with superheroes.

Figure 5: Bar chart of the most popularly superheroes

selected in the game.

In the case of girls the results were: Two

princesses reached total popularity of 100% (i.e.

Anna and Elsa), while five reached popularity

amounts between 16.7% and 41.7% (i.e. Rapunzel,

Ariel, Goethel, Jasmine, and, Cinderella). These

amounts are all above average. However 17 are

almost unknown to the children as they reached

popularity values below 8.3% (Snow White,

Pocahontas, Queen Grim Hilde, Shan Yu, Hans,

Bella, Mulan, Tiana, Merida, Aurora, Lady Tremaine,

Ursula, Jafar, John Ratcliffe, Dr Facilier, Queen

Elinor, and Maleficent).

The results accomplished by children in the fifth

grade of elementary school at the intermediate level

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shows that the modified Tic-Tac-Toe game (with

semiotics) conducted the successful challenge by the

children., but gender difference were detected. Fig. 6

illustrates that in the normal game did not crystallize

any winners, but there were three losses and three ties

(i.e. equal finish). The girls in turn drew all. On the

other hand, Fig. 7 demonstrates two boys won, having

just three losses and one draw. Girls continue getting

the same draws. However, in the case of girls no

improvement could be reached. This analysis was

performed in each grade and with different levels (i.e.

basic, intermediate and advanced) demonstrating

better results with the game optimized with

Semiotics, contrasting the research hypothesis

convincingly.

Figure 6: Results obtained using Tic-Tac-Toe game without

semiotics.

Finally, the illustration in Fig. 8 has been obtained by

the means of the method of Natural and Hyman. In

this figure it is demonstrated, that the frequency curve

of the normal variable change fairly its tendency

compared to the curve generated by the semiotic

variable. This leads to the conclusion, of the existence

of a greater homogeneity of the data of the semiotics

variable compared with normal variable. Thus, we are

able to suggest, that it is more difficult to resolve

recreational games with normal conditions when a

semiotic modelling applies. Therefore, we deduce

that semiotics grows proportionally affecting more

positively the learning in an objective and scientific

way. Similarly, based on the study conducted at

different grades (second to sixth grade) in an

elementary school we obtained a similar behaviour

Figure 7: Results obtained using Tic-Tac-Toe game with

semiotics.

Figure 8: Results obtained adjusting an algebraic

polynomial from the absolute cumulative frequencies.

4.2 Discussion

It is considered that the Aleferenko model integrates

the foundations of Semiotics. Another important fact

that carried this model to the desktop platform game

is its friendly appearance. Therefore, it has been

empowering for the comprehensive knowledge of

children between 7 and 11 years old and can be used

as part of the teaching-learning process of

schoolchildren, because this game is a strategy

educational game that is using to stimulate logical and

spatial reasoning. In this study, that was achieved due

to the implication of connotative analysis in deep

through Artificial Intelligence and Software

Engineering, which causes the receiver (user) uses

tactics and strategies to beat the computer. Thus, a

dynamic environment was created in the game for the

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receivers who can have their own signs according to

the age. They lose their arbitrariness and the symbols

become the identifiers with which the children are

related and can create relevance and internalization of

the knowledge, and above all to create interactivity.

Another important aspect when evaluating the game

includes the use of signs and symbols and their

diagnostic meaning for the children. Therefore, this

creates a natural, interesting, efficient and motivating

learning.

5 CONCLUSIONS

This research focused on how to optimize an

educational video game named Tic-Tac-Toe by

means of semiotics analysis, in order to stimulate

logical and spatial reasoning of children. The main

issue in our study has been to design a mathematical

model, which is implemented with AI algorithms and

a graphical user interface including Semiotics,

applied to an incremental methodology with the aim

of producing an enjoyable and interactive

environment. To carry out this study, we have used

the Extreme Programing (XP) agile methodology for

the codification and testing of the incremental

products in each iteration (sprint), combined with the

modified Elemental Tetrad Game Design Model for

defining the performance of the game’s models, in

order to ensure the quality of the software used. To

validate our results, the proof of concept and testing

has been performed with a representative sample at

an elementary school, focused on children with ages

ranging from seven to eleven years old. The results

imply that educational video games with Semiotics

stimulate cognitive development of children.

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