Possibility of Modern Humidity Sensor Application in the Studies of
Moisture Transport through the Sports and Outdoor Garments
Andrey Koptyug, Mats Ainegren, Mikael Bäckström, Erika Schieber and Jonas Persson
Sports Tech Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Akademigatan 1, SE-83125 Östersund, Sweden
Keywords: Sports and Outdoor Garments, Comfort, Moisture Transport, Experimental Studies, Wind Tunnel.
Abstract: Sensor nodes containing pairs of temperature and humidity sensors were assessed as a mean of garment
performance and comfort studies. Modern sensors are small, low weight and produce minimal disturbance
when placed under the garments and in the footwear. Four sensor nodes were used to provide dynamic
information about heat and humidity transfer properties of garments during the tests in realistic conditions.
Pilot studies were carried out for the few models of cross country skiing garments and waders. Main studies
were carried out in the wind tunnel at Mid Sweden University having pivoted treadmill, temperature control
and rain capacity. Additional experiments with the waders were carried out in a large water tank. Studies of
the temperature and humidity dynamics under the garments containing microporous membranes illustrate
the importance of recognizing main features of such materials. In particular, such membranes can only
transport moisture from the side where humidity is higher. It means that garments and footwear containing
such membranes will potentially behave differently when ambient air humidity changes. In particular,
modern garments with incorporated microporous membranes being superior at low ambient air humidity can
be dramatically less effective for moisture transfer from the body in the rain.
1 INTRODUCTION
Modern garments and footwear often incorporate
innovative fabrics and can have quite complex,
multilayer structure. This strongly complicates
possibilities of adequate prediction of the overall
garment or footwear performance and their assess-
ment in targeted environment, even if the fabrics
were tested in the laboratory using standard proce-
dures, and the garment or footwear is individually
fit. When the garment or footwear is designed to
work in extreme conditions (cold, hot, humid
environment) and should provide high degree of
comfort of the person at different physical load
levels, corresponding performance assessment may
be quite challenging. Though modern garment and
footwear research and development strongly de-
pends on traditional ways of subjective assessment,
there is a strong drive towards objective methods
providing more reliable and reproducible data
(Arezes et al., 2013). Present research is aiming at
the assessment of compact temperature and humidity
sensor system applications for the studies relative
humidity and thermal comfort of garments in the
controlled laboratory environment mimicking realis-
tic conditions. Particular research questions were if
such sensor systems can visualize the action of
modern semi-permeable membranes incorporated
into the garments, and if they can be used for the
moisture transport studies.
Human thermoregulation system has a signify-
cant potential to maintain core body temperature in a
comfort zone even with increasing heat production
during work or exercise (e.g. Reilly et al., 2006, Lim
et al., 2008). But this mechanism involves perspire-
tion and thermal comfort is strongly influenced by
the humidity at the skin surface (Jing et al., 2013).
Thus it is quite important for the garments to support
proper heat and humidity control (Gonzalez, 1988,
Sullivan et al., 1992, Rugh et al., 2004,
Senthilkumar et al., 2012, Troynikov et al., 2013,
Nayak et al., 2014). Additional challenge for the
heat and humidity control under the garments and
footwear may be presented by cold (Watson et al.,
2013) and wet (Abreu et al., 2012) environment.
Significant progress in modern garment design is
related to the development of “smart textile” and
“smart garment” concepts (Parkova et al., 2011).
Modern “active” materials can provide needed
proactive heat and humidity control features (Van
Roy, 1992, Chaudhari et al., 2005, Brzeziński et al.,
2005). For example semi-permeable membranes
Koptyug, A., Ainegren, M., Bäckström, M., Schieber, E. and Persson, J.
Possibility of Modern Humidity Sensor Application in the Studies of Moisture Transport through the Sports and Outdoor Garments.
DOI: 10.5220/0006080400510058
In Proceedings of the 4th International Congress on Sport Sciences Research and Technology Support (icSPORTS 2016), pages 51-58
ISBN: 978-989-758-205-9
Copyright
c
2016 by SCITEPRESS Science and Technology Publications, Lda. All rights reserved
51
facilitating gas and water vapour transfer but
preventing liquid (water) getting through (Metz,
2003, Brzeziński et al., 2005, Frydrych et al., 2009).
Though standards for measuring humidity transfer
through the multi-layer fabric structures containing
such materials do exist (Standard ISO 15496:2004).
Studies on the impact of pro-active materials being
part of the multi-layered structure of the smart
garments in realistic conditions today are carried out
using unique “sweating manikins” (Fukazawa et al.,
2004, Farrington et al., 2005, Bogerd et al., 2012,
Gao et al., 2016), or done with subjects wearing
garments exercising on a treadmill (Roberts et al.,
2007), outdoors or in the climate controlled indoor
environment (Bäckström et al., 2016).
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Sensors and Data Acquisition
A custom made system with four sensor nodes was
designed and constructed. Each sensor node
consisted of a small printed board with two
temperature (T) and relative humidity (RH) sensors
SHT21 by Sensirion AG, Switzerland (Sensirion
web site, 2016) mounted on opposite sides of the
boards (Figure 1). For better humidity resistance
boards are coated with protection lacquer. The
sensors have a precision of ±3% in RH in the full
range (0 to 100%) and ±0.3
o
C in T in the range of
interest (0 to 60
o
C). Digital interfaces of the sensors
are connected via home-made multiplexer to the
digital serial interface module NI USB-485 (by
National Instruments).
Data acquisition is carried out using the
LabVIEW platform by National Instruments.
Sampling from all nodes simultaneously can be set
to 5 or 10 seconds per sample.
Figure 1: Experimental T and RH measuring nodes.
2.2 Sports Garment Tests
Garments of two different designs from the same
manufacturer were tested. Both garments were the
prototypes designed for the cross-country skiing and
biathlon. Garment 1 is made using: fabric 106402
Vulcano Dry-Storm by Sport wear Argentona (70%
Polyester, 20% Elastan, 10% Polyurethane) in 3
layers with microporous membrane inside, wind
protection GG40; fabric W53798 by Schoeller (60%
Polyacryl, 28% PES-Expand, 12% Lycra) in 2
layers, wind- and water-tight; mesh S-005 by Janmar
Sport (94/ PES, 6% Elastan), single-layer. Garment
2 is made using: fabric 106406 Kanjut Dry-Storm by
Sport wear Argentona (84% PES, 6% Elsatan, 10%
Polyurethane), in 3 layers with microporous
membrane inside, wind- and water- resistant; fabric
S-013/300/DR by Janmar Sport (84% PES, 16%
Elastan); mesh S-005 by Janmar Sport, single layer.
Tests were performed in the wind tunnel (for the
wind tunnel description see Bäckström et al., 2016)
with the subjects roller-skiing on the treadmill
(Figure 2). The air temperature was 3-4
o
C and
relative humidity was 75-80%.
Figure 2: Test subject roller skiing in the wind tunnel.
Sensor nodes were placed over the underwear
(Figure 3 visualizes the sensor node placement-
positions and procedure). Two male cross country
skiers with the experience on national level
participated in this part of the study.
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Figure 3: Sensor node placement- positions and procedure.
Sensor nodes were placed over the underwear
(Figure 3 visualizes the sensor node placement-
positions and procedure). Two male cross country
skiers with the experience on national level
participated in this part of the study.
Each of the skiers performed tests with both
types of garments using roller skis on the treadmill
for 15 minutes at a relative intensity of ~75% of
their maximal heart rate. One of the skiers was using
classical style double poling (15 km/h, 0° treadmill
inclination) and the other was using free style gear 4
(20 km/h, 0° inclination). The wind tunnel created
head wind corresponded to the speed of the
treadmill. Heart rate was recorded along with the
sensor data (T and RH) and the subjects were
interviewed before and after the tests to assess the
perceived comfort. Subjects were wearing small
control box (on the belt) connected with a flexible
cable to the data acquisition PC (Figure 2).
2.3 Waders Tests
In this part of the study three types of commercial
waders were tested, ranging from the least expensive
galon waders (Fladen, PVC-impregnated fabric type,
http://www.jula.se) to the most expensive ones,
using modern semi-permeable membrane materials
(Kaitum and Alta, http://www.guideline.no/).
Kaitum waders use 3-layer fabric sandwiches: outer
layer is nylon, membrane layer is of the
polyurethane (PU) coating type, qualified for 20000
mm Hg water pressure, fabric density 7000 g/m
2
.
From the waist up, Alta waders use 3-layer fabric
sandwiches: outer layer is nylon/spandex, membrane
layer is of the PU coating type, qualified for 15000
mm Hg water pressure, fabric density 3000 g/m
2
.
From the waist down, Alta waders use 4-layer fabric
sandwiches: outer layer is nylon, membrane layer 1
is of the polyurethane coating type, membrane 2 is
PU, qualified for 30000 mm Hg water pressure,
fabric density 5000 g/m
2
.
In each series of tests three subjects were
participating wearing same sample waders. The first
series of tests was performed in the wind tunnel with
the subjects walking on the treadmill (18
o
C and
33% RH). Each of the tests consisted of steady
walking for 10 minutes at 4 km/h followed by
another 10 minutes at 6 km/h. Heart rate of the test
subjects was kept at approximately 60% of
maximum. Head wind was kept at the same speed as
the treadmill one, and treadmill was horizontal
throughout the test.
The second test series was conducted with the
subjects staying waste deep in the water tank (air
temperature 20
o
C, water temperature 14.8
o
C) for 15
minutes. Sensor node placement was same as for the
ski garments tests. Subjects were interviewed before
and after the tests to assess the perceived comfort.
Figure 4 illustrates typical setup of the waders test in
the water tank. In this case control box was placed at
the back of the test subject close to the neck.
Figure 4: Waders test in the water tank.
Possibility of Modern Humidity Sensor Application in the Studies of Moisture Transport through the Sports and Outdoor Garments
53
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The main target of the study was preliminary
assessment of the method and sensor system
capacity to analyze the temperature and humidity
under the garments, and the possibility to indicate
the humidity flow direction. Thus small number of
test subjects and relatively simple test protocols
were used. So present results can be used as good
indicators only, and more thorough research will be
carried out in the near future.
3.1 Microporous Membranes
Modern gas and humidity permeable membranes
used in fabric composites are represented by thin
microporous polymer layers (e.g. Gore-Tex, a
microporous PTFE-based material (Gore Tex web
site, 2016). Figure 5 presents a scanning electron
microscopy images of the untreated Gore-Tex
membrane used in standard water vapour
permeability tests (Standard ISO 15496:2004).
Transport rate of water vapour through such
membranes strongly depends on the RH difference
on the sides of membrane, temperature and air
pressure (Metz, 2003). Thus adequately predicting
performance of the full garment containing such
membranes (placed only in certain places in
sections, and also as parts of the composite fabric
sandwiches) in real exercises is quite difficult.
Standard humidity transfer tests done on
relatively small fabric samples (Standard ISO
15496:2004), are essentially static. Expected
dynamic behaviour of the composite fabrics with
such membranes can be explained as follows.
Figure 5: SEM images of the Gore-Tex microporous
membrane. Magnification: x 2200 (x 8800 for insert).
When ambient humidity is lower than the one
under the membrane (towards human body) certain
water vapour transport towards the outer side of the
garment should take place. When humidity under the
garment is becoming higher than the one outside it
water vapour transport towards the body takes place.
During intense exercising humidity under the
garment starts to increase, increasing the water
vapour transport through the garment. Water vapour
transfer rate increases with increasing RH
difference, and the growth of humidity under the
garment will be governed by a competition of the
humidity "production" and humidity transfer. If the
membrane has high transfer capacity humidity under
the garment should be kept almost stable (or at least
should grow very slowly). At some point the
capacity limit of the membrane will be reached
(saturation), and humidity under the garment should
start to grow fast, possibly reaching 100%. Intense
exercising is accomplished by the changes of the
temperature under the garment. And both
temperature and humidity levels matter for the
proper thermoregulation and comfort. So measuring
dynamics of both parameters is important.
Processes of moisture transfer by such
membranes can be better understood using analogies
with the microporous membranes used in osmosis
(Zhao et al., 2012, Nicoll, 2013). In this case
membrane attempts to level the osmotic pressures on
both of its sides. In simplest cases with water salt
solutions these membranes attempt to level the salt
concentrations on two sides of the membrane. From
this analogy point of view one can treat humidity as
moisture concentration in the air, and microporous
membrane working to level such concentrations on
both sides of it. This analogy is also useful to stress
the presence of strong temperature and air pressure
dependence of moisture transport through
microporous membranes. Indeed, relative humidity
is not a simple concentration of the water vapour in
the air: "the relative humidity of an air-water
mixture is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure
of water vapour in the mixture to the equilibrium
vapour pressure of water over a flat surface of pure
water at a given temperature" (Relative humidity
definition, Wikipedia). Simply speaking it is the
ratio of the water amount that is now in the air, to
the maximum amount of water the air at this
temperature and pressure can hold without forming
condensation droplets (fog). And this maximum
amount is significantly temperature and pressure
dependent. And even though absolute amount of
water in the air can be constant, RH is changing
when air temperature and pressure changes.
icSPORTS 2016 - 4th International Congress on Sport Sciences Research and Technology Support
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3.2 Ski Garment Tests
Figure 6 presents typical data from the posterior
thigh sensor node (ski garment tests, skating style)
when testing two different garments by the same test
subject.
Analysis of the dynamic temperature curves
(Figure 6, top graph) indicates that garment 1 is
warmer than garment 2: temperatures of the sensors
on the surface of the underwear (1i, “inner” T
sensor) and towards the garment inner surface (2i)
have rather small difference of the values. For the
garment 2 the sensor facing towards the inner
garment surface (2o, “outer” sensor) shows much
lower temperatures as compared to the values from
“inner” one. Also temperatures of both sensors in the
node during all 20 minutes of test are lower for the
garment 2 indicating higher hear loss. This also can
be explained by potentially looser fit of garment 2
for the same test subject. Looser fit can lead to the
intake of cooler ambient air into the gap between the
underwear and the garment. It is interesting to note
that steady state temperature is reached in about 1
minute from the beginning of the test for the “inner”
sensor, and in about 3 minutes for the “outer”
sensor. Heart rate dynamics of the test subject shows
that steady state value is reached during the first
three minutes of the test, corresponding to the
“warming up” period.
Figure 6: Dynamic data from the posterior thigh sensor
node, ski garment test, skating style. (1o) and (1i) mark
the data from the test on type 1 garment, (2o) and (2i)- on
type 2 garment correspondingly. (1o) and 2(o)- outer, (1i)
and (2i) -inner sensors of the node.
Analysis of the dynamic humidity curves (Figure
6, bottom graph) indicates that garment 2 provides
much better humidity control than garment 1 almost
through the whole duration of the test. Even at the
beginning of the test humidity under the garment 1 is
higher (it took some time to rig the measurement
system and test subjects were already wearing the
garments for about 5 minutes before the test started).
For 2 minutes there is no significant change in
the humidity detected by both sensors in the node for
both garments. After that humidity starts to increase,
more rapidly for garment 1, reaching saturation at
about 6th and 11th test minutes for garments 1 and 2
correspondingly. So it indicates that humidity
control in garment 2 is more effective. It is also
supported by the larger difference between the RH
values detected by “inner” and “outer” node sensors.
3.3 Waders Tests
Figures 7 and 8 present typical data from the
posterior thigh sensor node in waders tests. Same
subject was testing three different waders in the
wind tunnel walking (Figure 7) and water tank tests
(Figure 8) correspondingly.
Sample waders 1 are made of traditional
waterproof materials (galon, impregnated fabric),
samples 2 and 3 are using the modern composite
fabrics incorporating microporous membranes.
Figure 7: Dynamic data from the posterior thigh sensor
node, wader walking test. (1), (2) and (3) - waders samples
##1-3; (i)- "inner" sensor placed towards underwear, (o)-
"outer" sensor towards the waders. 10 seconds between
data points.
Possibility of Modern Humidity Sensor Application in the Studies of Moisture Transport through the Sports and Outdoor Garments
55
Figure 8: Dynamic data from the posterior thigh sensor
node, wader "water tank" test. (1), (2) and (3) – waders,
samples ##1-3. 10 seconds between data points.
In walking tests the heart rate of the subjects was
stabilizing after about 3 minutes. Similarly, the
temperature on the node sensors was also stabilizing
in about 2-3 minutes (Figure 7, top graphs).
As expected, temperature under the old style
waders (sample 1) was generally higher, as compa-
red to the modern style ones (samples 2 and 3). It
can be also expected that humidity under the old
style waders should be generally higher as well
(which is confirmed), but humidity dynamics is
quite interesting (Figure 7, bottom graphs).
Humidity under the old style waders is steadily
growing straight from the beginning of the test
increasing the rate after about 10 minutes from the
start as the treadmill speed was increasing from 4 to
6 km/h. But new style waders with microporous
membranes are capable of maintaining close to
constant humidity within comfortable range up to 12
minutes of the walking test and some longer. And
even towards the end of the test humidity transport
in modern style waders is not reaching saturation.
During the water tank test temperature under the
old style waders (sample 1) was generally lower, as
compared to the modern style waders (samples 2 and
3), as illustrated in Figure 8 (top graphs). This can
be explained by the fact that modern materials
provide better heat insulation. But counter intuitively
the humidity under the old style waders in the water
tank test was also generally lower, as compared to
the modern style ones (Figure 8, bottom graphs).
Both tendencies are opposite to the ones acquired
in the walking tests. There are few spurious
disturbances on the graphs corresponding to the "out
of trend" T and RH values. So far we were not able
to attribute these to any issue, but these are not
changing any trends. Also, there are temperature
instabilities in the second half of the test. Most
probably it can be attributed to the relatively loose
fit of the waders. At higher treadmill speed during
the second half of the test ambient air was probably
starting to get under the waders.
The counter intuitive humidity results can be
explained through the basic property of microporous
membranes. In these membranes direction and rate
of humidity transport depends on the RH difference
on the membrane sides: transport always goes from
higher to lower humidity. In the walking test
ambient humidity is lower than that under the
garments, and membranes work to decrease the
humidity inside. In the water tank test humidity
outside the garments is 100% (water) and the
membranes will always tend to increase the
humidity under the garments, even though water
droplets are not getting through the microporous
membrane. This fact is worth taking into account
when designing garments and footwear that will be
working in different ambient humidity conditions
and occasionally wet environments. Also, moisture
transport properties of such membranes are
generally temperature dependent, and thorough
garment and footwear tests in realistic conditions are
advisable in such cases.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Sensor nodes containing pairs of temperature and
relative humidity sensors are well suited for the
indoor and field applications. These sensors are
small, low weight and produce minimal disturbance
when placed under the garments or inside the
footwear. Multiple sensor nodes can provide the
information about heat and humidity transfer
properties of garments and footwear during work or
exercising in realistic conditions. There are clear
indications that such sensor nodes can provide
information about not only the rate of moisture
transfer, but also its direction. Such systems can be
effectively used for the assessment and comparison
of the garment and footwear performance, especially
the ones containing modern active and "smart"
materials. Application of arrays of such sensors
allows for the analysis of temperature and humidity
dynamics under the garments and footwear during
outdoor and indoor tests. Preliminary studies of the
temperature and humidity dynamics under the
icSPORTS 2016 - 4th International Congress on Sport Sciences Research and Technology Support
56
garments containing microporous membranes
carried out in realistic conditions illustrate the
importance of recognising main features of such
materials. In particular, such materials can only
transport moisture from the side where humidity is
higher. This means that garments and footwear
containing such membranes will potentially behave
quite differently when ambient air humidity
dramatically changes. Additional work is now in
progress to better adapt sensor nodes for the
footwear comfort studies.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work was carried out with the financial support
from the EU and Swedish Agency for Economic and
Regional Growth (Tillväxtverket) within the project
"Focus Outdoor" (Grant nr. 163382).
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