Green IS/IT: An Overview of Historical Periods, Recent Research

Initiatives and Theoretical Approaches

Nataliya Shevchuk

, Henry Oinas-Kukkonen

and Harri Oinas-Kukkonen

Oulu Advanced Research on Service and Information Systems Research Group (OASIS),

Faculty of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland

Faculty of Humanities, History, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland

Keywords: Green IS History, Historical Research Methods, Periodization.

Abstract: In this paper, we discuss historical periods and recent research initiatives and theoretical approaches to Green

Information Systems and Technologies (GIS/IT). Having observed that the GIS/IT history is an insufficiently

investigated topic, we used Information Systems History (ISH) research methods, such as periodization,

contextualization and generalization. With the help of exploring existing variety of theories and initiatives,

we provide clarification of evolution of the GIS/IT concept and explore areas in industry and research that are

currently lacking insight. Our methodological diversification of the GIS/IT research assists not only in

summarizing the current state of the GIS/IT but also in encouraging ideation and cooperation of the academics

from different fields to produce novel outlooks on the GIS/IT.

1 INTRODUCTION

Among numerous studies concerning GIS/IT,

presently, the GIS/IT history is an insufficiently

investigated topic with blurred boundaries, unclear

beginning and indefinite future. We suggest that

investigating the history of the GIS/IT serves several

purposes: (1) tracing the origin of the GIS/IT concept,

(2) applying the Information Systems History (ISH)

research methods, such as periodization,

contextualization and generalization, (3) highlighting

the GIS/IT significance in IS and other disciplines,

and (4) summarizing current state of the GIS/IT

research.

Our research considers disciplines of history,

environmental science and information systems as

well as includes resonance of the business and

sociological studies. Firstly, we explain methodology

we use and our view on the GIS/IT concept. Then, the

historical periodization, contextualization, and

generalization are used to shed the light on GIS/IT

related matters. Investigating essential historical

marks in the GIS/IT realm, we explain that

historically, the GIS/IT is a modern incarnation of the

technological and sustainable paths which can be

traced in the history of the humanity far back in the

past. Although it is impossible to give a completely

thorough historical review of all matters pertaining to

traces of sustainability and technology in the course

of development of humankind, we picked the most

relevant events from the history of IS and GIS/IT. The

chosen historical pinnacles are frequently considered

in scientific discussions, and thus, are likely to have

considerably shaped and continue shaping the manner

in which societal trends are developing. After that we

give an insight of instances of GIS/IT in practice and

research. Presenting cornucopia of initiatives in

industry and society as well as theories and

framework utilized in the GIS/IT research, we

discover areas which are currently lacking insight. To

conclude, we summarize findings based on

periodization, contextualization and generalization of

the GIS/IT in the history of the humanity and how

crucial it is to ensure the presence of a

multidimensional view of the GIS/IT notion

nowadays. We also suggest proceeding consideration

of GIS/IT via the historical lens with the multi-fold

purpose of the investigation and diversification of

views on the concept and popularization of the

historical research methods in IS in general.

Shevchuk, N., Oinas-Kukkonen, H. and Oinas-Kukkonen, H.

Green IS/IT: An Overview of Historical Periods, Recent Research Initiatives and Theoretical Approaches.

DOI: 10.5220/0006235101270134

In Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Smart Cities and Green ICT Systems (SMARTGREENS 2017), pages 127-134

ISBN: 978-989-758-241-7

127

2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

In this study, we employ historical research methods.

Considering Information Systems History (ISH) as

the point where IS meets history (Oinas-Kukkonen

and Oinas-Kukkonen, 2014), we approach the GIS/IT

history as a chronological account of sustainable

ideas combined with practical and theoretical

technological developments. To contextualize the

present of GIS/IT, we refer to contextualizing

relevant trends and tendencies in the past, thus

conducting periodization and generalization of the

history of sustainability and technology, the

components of the GIS/IT history. By mapping these

components to sources in the past, we employ

historical research approach that will help retrieving

an encompassing spectrum of what enabled

appearance and growth of the present-day GIS/IT

domain.

Considering concepts of sustainability and IS –

the deep-rooted and considerably researched notions

– as the causes which initiated appearance of the

GIS/IT, we rely on assumption that “causes always

have contexts, and to know the former we must

understand the latter” (Gaddis, 2002). By

contextualizing the past of these components, we

broaden an existing understanding of these notions

and, ultimately, we contribute to explaining the

GIS/IT domain. Contextualizing the past is complex

and an intellectually rigorous process (Lévesque,

2008), so with undertaking the historian lens to view

the GIS/IT domain, we aim to “recover the lost

world” (Gaddis, 2002) of what construes the initial

point of combining technological and sustainable

ideas. Referring to “manipulation of time, space, and

scale” (Gaddis, 2002) that are suggested to place a

subject of historical investigation in context, we show

how passage of time divided in to periods has been

modifying necessities of technological advancements

and sustainable living and eventually shaped them

into a modern concept of GIS/IT.

In accord with the recommended historical

research practices (Oinas-Kukkonen and Oinas-

Kukkonen, 2014), we constructed a thematic

discussion on GIS/IT with an emphasis on

chronology and periodization. Observing continuity

and periods of time crucial for GIS/IT, we used

existing periodization approaches to identify coherent

phases and important turning points of the GIS/IT

history. Making generalizations and conclusions, we

utilized periodization not only to outline chronology

of events but also as a medium for sense-making of

the GIS/IT phenomenon.

We recognize that there are several outlooks on

GIS and GIT concepts, so, in this study, we

emphasize treating the GIT as part of the GIS.

Typically, the notion of GIT addresses energy

consumption and waste associated with the use of

hardware and software, which tends to have a direct

and positive impact, such as improving the energy

efficiency of hardware and data centers, consolidating

servers using virtualization software, and reducing

amount of the leftover material associated with

obsolete equipment (McLaren et al., 2010; Watson et

al., 2008). However, limited to the IT function

without leveraging the potential of IS to decrease

enterprise-wide environmental impacts, the GIT

practices alone cannot solve the environmental

challenge (Recker, 2016).

Conversely, GIS has been noted for a potential to

enable changes to practices, decisions and business

process. It is broadly defined as the composition of

structures that assist individuals and organizations to

make environmentally sustainable decisions

conveniently and effectively, enable and effectuate

environmentally sustainable work practices (Recker,

2016; Watson et al., 2008). GIS is distinguished as the

study and practice of IS-enabled organizational

process reengineering with green objectives that

improve environmental and economic performance,

advance cooperative knowledge management

(Watson et al., 2008), and create positive impacts

indirectly. A combination of these views on GIS and

GIT constitutes our approach to GIS/IT as the subject

of research.

We suggest that the GIS/IT periodization,

contextualization and generalization, can be further

incorporated into other historical research methods,

such as the seven step approach (Mason et al., 1997)

and account for other ISH research practical

recommendations suggested by Oinas-Kukkonen and

Oinas-Kukkonen. We expect that this rather

unconventional research approach in the IS discipline

will bring out importance of the “green” and

sustainable topics in the IS scientific community as

well as explain meaning and significance of the

GIS/IT to the researchers in other fields.

3 HISTORICAL

PERIODIZATION OF GIS/IT

DEVELOPMENT

Combination of computer science, management and

organization theory, operations research, accounting

(Davis and Olson, 1985), and development of

technology initiated appearance of Information

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128

Systems research field in 1960s, initially referred to

as “Management Information Systems” (Hirschheim

and Klein, 2012). Since then, the IS field has been

growing and changing together with the disciplines it

was initially composed of. To contextualize evolution

of the IS field, we refer to the Four Era periodization

by Hirschheim and Klein (2012) and we map

evolution of the GIS/IT to these stages.

The First Era (from mid 1960s to mid 1970s began

when the first IS departments appeared in

organizations. This phenomenon was largely driven

by the need to automate the basic business processes

to consolidate basic data processing (Hirschheim and

Klein, 2012). This era is also marked by appearance

fo the Third (1964 – 1979) and Fourth (beginning

1979) Generation computers (Butler, 1997).

Although the term “sustainability” had been coined

by this time, the significance of sustainable

development of human kind had been recognized and

the overall environmental consciousness has

increased, there was still no significant GIS/IT

practices implemented.

The Second Era (from mid 1970 to 1980s) was

marked by introduction of personal computers,

attempts to develop massive parallel CPUs and

artificial intelligence, and competition for the leading

position in IS hardware (e.g. Japanese “Fifth

Generation Computer project”; the US

Microelectronics and Computer Technology

Corporation (MCC), the UK’s Alvey initiative, and

the European Strategic Program of Research in

Information Technology (ESPRIT)) (Butler, 1997).

At the same time, further association of building

sustainable society with the increasing environmental

consciousness was taking place. The highlight of the

period was establishment of the World Commission

on Environment and Development (WCED) (the

Brundtland Commission) by the UN to craft long-

term environmental strategies for the international

community (UN, 1987). Our Common Future report

(1987), written by the Commission, emphasized

meeting needs of the poor without increasing

environmental problems (UN, 1987).

The Third Era (from mid 1980s to late 1990s) is

the period of emerging departmental computing and

decentralization. Large scale computer networking

took over private and public networks, and the

Internet emerged to assist with open architecture

networking (Hirschheim and Klein, 2012). For the

first time in history, GIS/IT programs, standards and

initiatives started appearing at this point (e.g. Energy

Star and TCO Certification (1992), The Uptime

Institute Inc. industry standards (1993) (Visalakshi et

al., 2013; Raza et al., 2012).

The Fourth and most eventful Era in both IS and

GIS/IT fields began in late 1990s with

commercialization of the Internet and enhancement

of organizational methods of communication and

business strategies. Virtual organizations started

dominating over “bricks-and-mortar” business

model, while intranets and extranets reengineered

business processes, consolidated operations and built

networking. Simultaneously, mobile and wireless

technologies extended the formal workplace and

develop ubiquitous computing environments and

enabled constant enhancement of GIS/IT applications

and solutions. Moreover, improved search engines

(e.g. Google) disrupted the research process, while

the growth of social media and networking

modernized work and interaction (Hirschheim and

Klein, 2012) as well as promoted spreading

environmentally conscious trends. More industrial

standards for environmental care supported by

institutions and individuals were established.

Businesses and other organizations have started

modifying their current processes and strategies

related to GIS/IT. Academic research gained a critical

role in addressing environmental issues, investigation

of theoretical and practical frameworks for

organizational, societal and individual needs.

Having paralleled the IS eras and GIS/IT

development, we observe that during the First and

Second IS Eras GIS/IT existed only in the form of

conceptual, ethical, social and political notion turning

into more practical concept in the Third and Fourth

eras. Overall, the continuity in the IS history due the

evolution from MIS to pervasive IS corresponds to

the continuous development of GIS/IT. Next we

analyze furhter how GIS/IT is approached by

practitioners and by academics.

4 GIS/IT INITIATIVES IN

INDUSTRY AND

GOVERNMENT

Partly the Third Era (1992–1993) and extensively the

Fourth Era of IS (since 1999) are marked with

implementation of numerous GIS/IT initiatives.

GIS/IT can guide companies and corporations in

handling toxic, hazardous materials and e-waste,

managing energy consuming facilities, and designing

products and business processes in environmentally

friendly manner (Butler, 2011), ultimately improving

organizational image, branding and generating more

revenues (Chou and Chou, 2012). Hence,

governmental and industrial programs, benchmarks

Green IS/IT: An Overview of Historical Periods, Recent Research Initiatives and Theoretical Approaches

129

and rating tools were created to support and rate

success of organizational GIS/IT practices. Several

works summarize well-known programs, practices,

and certifications acknowledged earlier in GIS/IT

research (Gandomi and Amin, 2014; Visalakshi et al.,

2013; Raza et al., 2012) highlighting their missions

related to GIS/IT advancement. Each of these

organizational initiatives is historically important for

the GIS/IT devolvement and modernization. Starting

from local optional programs (e.g. Energy Star by the

US Environmental Protection Agency, Certification

program by the Swedish organization TCO

Development ), more initiatives developed later

resulting onto world-wide programs (e.g. The Uptime

Institute Inc. industry standards, Standard

Performance Evaluation Corporation (SPEC)

benchmarks, Electronic Product Environmental

Assessment Tool (EPEAT) by Green Electronics

Council, Climate Savers Computing Initiative

(CSCI), Green Grid ) and governmental entities and

regulations (e.g. the US statewide recycling programs

and institutions including Electronics TakeBack

Coalition, American Recovery and Reinvestment Act

(ARRA), Coalition for American Electronics

Recycling) enforcing “green” industrial standards.

Thus, initially beginning as auxiliary programs,

GIS/IT standards turned into business requirements

for organizations to remain competitive and

appealing to customers.

Apart from organizational and industrial

standards, there are also programs and initiatives for

recognizing individual skills and expertise related to

GIS/IT. Although they still fall both qualitatively and

quantitatively behind those crafted for organizations,

the instances of certifications to recognize personal

knowledgeability are present in the sphere of the

GIS/IT. Simultaneously with the organizational

benchmarking, universities and professional

certification programs worldwide educate individuals

about building and maintaining GIS/IT. Existence of

these certifications pinpoints that education and

training of the individuals is a valuable contribution

towards the overall development of GIS/IT.

Visalakshi et al., (2013) highlighted the following

certification programs for individuals:

 Certified Green Computing User Specialist

(CGCUS), Certified Green Computing Architect

(CGCA) and Certified Green Computing

Professional (CGCP) by Green Computing

Initiative (2007)

 Certificate in GIT by BCS Professional

Certification (formerly Information Systems

Examinations Board (ISEB))

 Computer Professional Education Program

(CPEP) with the Green Technology Strategies

Certification by the Australian Computer Society

(ACS) (2009)

 CompTIA Strata GIT (discontinued in 2013)

Certification (2010)

 Singapore Certified GIT Professional by the

Singapore Infocomm Technology Federation

(SiTF) (2012)

Although the specifics of the certifications vary, their

main ideas are to educate IT practitioners what the

core environmental goals are, which sustainable

regulations and practices are most commonly

implemented, and how to optimize business processes

to reduce carbon footprint.

Moreover, creation of these courses and

certifications from 2007 onwards indicated growth in

demand of having a registered approval of the

individual knowledge and skills at managing GIS/IT.

As these certifications aim to provide more career

opportunities for their holders, it indicates that GIS/IT

expertise has developed as a separate valuable human

resource skill. From being solely a point of interest,

GIS/IT has become a necessary skill for employees

responsible for the corporate social responsibility and

procurement or infrastructure. Unfortunately, there

are a few drawbacks associated with these

certifications. Firstly, some of the certifications were

not long-living and have already been discontinued

(e.g. CompTIA Strata GIT). Moreover, the

certifications’ ultimate purpose of contributing

towards cultivating eco-friendly individual and

organizational attitudes may not always be pursued.

For instance, Organization for Economic Co-

operation and Development (OECD Working Party

on the Information Economy, 2009) noted that

initiatives often neglect actual implementation, since

only 20% of over 90 government and industry

initiatives surveyed were recognized to have the

measurable targets (with government programs

including targets more frequently than business

associations). Hence, constant revisions and further

development of the similar initiatives is required.

5 GIS/IT THEORETICAL

APPROACHES

Appearing in late 2000s during the most recent part

of the Fourth Era of IS, in academic investigation

(Tushi, Sedera and Recker, 2014), the GIS/IT

research field needs directions, explanations of

relevant theoretical foundations, studies,

conceptualizations and proposals (Lei and Ngai,

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Table 1: Examples and classification of GIS/IT theories.

GIS/IT application Theories

Organizational

-Explaining influence of internal and

external motivational drivers such as

managerial attitudes and subjective

norms on emergence GIS/IT

initiatives in organizations

Theory of Reasoned Action (Sarkar and Young, 2009), Institutional

Theory (Butler, 2011; Sarkar and Young, 2009), Motivation Theory

(Molla and Abareshi, 2012; Molla and Abareshi, 2011), Resource

Dependence Theory (Datta, Roy and Tarafdar, 2010), Theory of

Absorptive Capacity (Cooper and Molla, 2012), Organisational Theory

(Butler, 2011), Belief–Action–Outcome (Gholami et al., 2013),

Diffusion of Innovation (Bose and Luo, 2011; Nedbal et al., 2011)

-Providing insights on incorporating

GIS/IT in organizational context

G-Readiness Framework (Molla et al., 2008), Implementation

Framework (Mann, Grant and Singh Mann, 2009), Strategic GIT

Alignment (Erek et al., 2011), Balanced Scorecard (Jain, Benbunan-

Fich and Mohan, 2011),Socio-Technical System Theory (Seidel, Recker

and vom Brocke, 2013), Energy Efficiency and Low Carbon Enabler

GIT (Uddin and Rahman, 2012), Process Virtualization Theory (Bose

and Luo, 2011)

-Theorizing processes of introducing,

assessing and evaluating GIS/IT

initiatives, implementation stages,

performance and integration

possibilities (outsourcing) at different

the organizational levels and across

departments

Technology–Organization– Environment Theory (Lei and Ngai, 2013;

Bose and Luo, 2011; Nedbal et al., 2011), Value Model (Chou and

Chou, 2012), Transaction Cost Theory (Nedbal et al., 2011),

Theory of

Practise (Ijab, Molla and Cooper, 2011), Business Transformation

(Elliot, 2011), GIS Lifecycle (Ijab et al., 2010), Functional Affordance

(Seidel, Recker and vom Brocke, 2013), Natural Resource Based View

Theory (Rahim and Rahman, 2013; Dao, Langella and Carbo, 2011).

Social

-Exploring initiatives, motivations,

beliefs, driving political (public

concerns, regulatory forces) and

economic factors (cost reduction,

differentiation), actions for

acceptance and role of mobile

technologies in adoption of GIS/IT in

the society.

Actor Network Theory (Aoun, Vatanasakdakul and Cecez-Kecmanovic,

2011; Bengtsson and Ågerfalk, 2011), Motivation Theory

(Koo, Chung

and Lee, 2013; Molla and Abareshi, 2012; Molla and Abareshi, 2011),

Reference Group Theory (Koo, Chung and Lee, 2013), Stakeholder

Theory (Cai, Chen and Bose, 2013), Political–Economic Framework

(Cai, Chen and Bose, 2013), U-Commerce Framework (Pitt et al.,

2011), Belief–Action–Outcome Framework (Melville, 2010)

Individual

-Examining beliefs, behaviors, and

goal-setting initiatives of GIS/IT

users;

-Observing how GIS/IT encourages

sustainable measures.

Theory of Reasoned Action (Chow and Chen, 2009), Theory of Planned

Behavior (Chow and Chen, 2009), Extended Model of Goal-Directed

Behavior Theory (Loock, Staake and Thiesse, 2013)

2013; Nanath and Pillai, 2012). Empirical GIS/IT

studies between 2007 and 2013 (examined by Tushi,

Sedera and Recker (2014) collected data at the

organizational level (Cai et al., 2013; Molla and

Abareshi, 2012; Nanath and Pillai, 2012; Cater-Steel

and Tan, 2011; Molla, 2009; Molla et al., 2009) from

both organizations and individuals (Ansari et al.,

2010), and from individuals (end users) (Chetty et al.,

2009; Chow and Chen, 2009; Sarkar and Young,

2009; Chetty et al., 2008; Woodruff et al., 2008).

Theoretical analysis (Tushi et al., 2014) reveals (1)

core topics (e.g. what GIT is, how it is causing

problems to the environment, how IT can be

transformed into GIT), (2) periphery topics (e.g. GIT

life cycles, motivations and initiatives), and (3) topics

beyond the scope (addressing awareness, cost of

implementation, current challenges, future

development, readiness and capability of

organization to face GIT, literature reviews of the

GIS/IT). To form a richer understanding of dominant

types of studies in the GIS/IT research, we classified

previously identified by Tushi, Sedera and Recker

(2014) prevalent theories and frameworks into

several general IS theory types outlined by Oinas-

Kukkonen (Oinas-Kukkonen, 2015). This

generalization distinguishes individual user

behaviors, social behaviors (of both individual users

and groups/networks of users), and organizational

behaviors. Applying this classification (see Table 1)

provides an insight on which levels of analysis

environmentally-oriented behaviors have been most

commonly addressed and reveals the ones lacking

scientific insight in GIS/IT literature.

Classification discloses that most of existing

theories and frameworks (23 in total) assist

organizations in implementing, utilizing and

evaluating GIS/IT initiatives. Meanwhile, the

theoretical approaches for individuals (3 total) and

social groups (7 total) are scarce. Thus, the GIS/IT

research should devote more attention to creating

Green IS/IT: An Overview of Historical Periods, Recent Research Initiatives and Theoretical Approaches

131

GIS/IT theoretical and practical solutions beyond the

scope of the organizational and job-related contexts.

6 CONCLUSIONS

We utilized historical methods contextualize and

generalize GIS/IT concept which up-to-date has only

been looked at as exclusively novel creation of the

recent stage of the technological age. By placing it in

the context of the related sustainable and general IS

trends, we highlighted its importance for the society

in different historical periods. Thus, together with

underpinning the significance of the GIS/IT, we

expanded utilization of the historical research

methods in IS research. Historical periodization,

generalization and contextual analysis of GIS/IT

initiatives shed the light on inseparability of

sustainable environmental concerns and

technological development. Periodization exposed

evolution of ideas about sustainability and IS which

culminated with the emergence of the new currently

developing division of research – the GIS/IT.

Summarizing current theoretical and practical

initiatives of the GIS/IT, we emphasized the potential

and need to continue developing this concept.

Besides exploring development of the sustainable

trends in parallel with constant technological

advancement from the IS perspective, we applied

historical research methods to summarize a wide

range of GIS/IT related standards and programs

created for organizations and individuals. Our

assessment suggests that while both types of the

initiatives are crucial and impactful, the ones crafted

for individuals have been scarcer and less advanced.

Similarly, in research and science, GIS/IT has been

studied more often on organizational and social levels

than on the individual one. Therefore, we highlight

the need to generate more practical and theoretical

GIS/IT solutions and studies targeted specifically for

individuals. Finally, our periodization,

contextualization, and generalization set the scene the

further more meticulous GIS/IT Historical Research.

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