The Incorporation of Drones as Object of Study in Energy-aware

Software Engineering

Luis Corral

, Ilenia Fronza

and Nabil El Ioini

Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education / Autonomous University of Queretaro

E. Gonzalez 500, 76130, Queretaro, Mexico

Free University of Bozen-Bolzano

Piazza Domenicani 3, 39100, Bolzano, Italy

Keywords:

Drone, Energy, Software.

Abstract:

As drones expand their ability to perform longer and more complex tasks, one of the ﬁrst concerns that rise is

their capacity to perform those tasks in a reliable way. Reliability can be understood from different aspects: the

ability of the drone to perform accurately, safely and autonomously. In this paper, we focus on understanding

the current efforts to ensure the last quality, autonomy, from the point of view of energy-awareness for drone

systems. It emerges that drones as object of study in energy aware Software Engineering is still an emerging,

unexplored area, which requires to learn from advances and experimentation in other mobile and ubiquitous

devices like cellular phones or tablets. Still, it is required to understand the opportunities and limitations of

drones as computational targets. A research agenda should be set and followed to leverage software as an

opportunity to foster drones as energy-aware devices.

1 INTRODUCTION

Unmanned aerial vehicles, more popularly known as

drones are aircraft that have no on-board, human pi-

lot (Clarke, 2014). The drone industry has been an

interesting topic for the past years, and the focus of

many discussions in the technology sector. The syn-

ergy between hardware and software, the continuous

evolution in drone technologies and the identiﬁcation

of novel application ﬁelds have consolidated drones

as an opportunity for innovation and an interesting ob-

ject of study.

Large drones have been used for years by many

countries, mainly for military purposes. After their

consolidation as a tool for defense industry, the ca-

pabilities of drones have increased, and their man-

ufacturing costs have been greatly reduced. There-

fore, drones have attracted many parties to consider

their capabilities for civil applications. Moreover,

applications in non-critical ﬁelds have expanded to

ﬁeld recognition, entertainment or air delivery, which

is already a reality that several companies are ex-

perimenting (de Fatima Bento, 2008). The use of

drones in mission-critical applications is also expand-

ing: drones have been used in disaster zones, recog-

nition of sites unreachable by land, mapping, delivery

of vital goods and medical aid (Starr, 2014).

Research and experimentation on drones have re-

ceived a good amount of attention from academics,

practitioners and enthusiasts. The areas of applica-

tion for unmanned aerial vehicles span from simple

entertainment to professional ﬁelds.

As drones expand their ability to perform longer

and more complex tasks, one of the ﬁrst concerns that

rise is their capability to perform those tasks in a de-

pendable way. Reliability can be understood from dif-

ferent points of view, for instance the ability of the

drone to perform accurately, safely and autonomously

(Wong, 2015). In that sense, the autonomy of a drone

depends highly on the energy that its power source

(i.e., a battery) can provide, in conjunction with the

weight, payload and other operational aspects of the

drone itself.

In those aspects, we may include the software that

operates the drone. In the ﬁeld of non-stationary,

energy dependent systems, Software Engineering for

energy-aware applications is a seasoned research area

that has helped to accomplish important goals lever-

aging software to reduce the energy consumption in

mobile targets (e.g., cellular phones, tablets, wire-

less sensors, wearables, and others). Like all these

devices, drones must rely on their battery capacity,

which is as well one of the most important limitations

to their operation. As a result, the potential useful-

Corral, L., Fronza, I. and Ioini, N.

The Incorporation of Drones as Object of Study in Energy-aware Software Engineering.

DOI: 10.5220/0006338607210726

In Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on Enterprise Information Systems (ICEIS 2017) - Volume 2, pages 721-726

ISBN: 978-989-758-248-6

721

ness of drones is prevented by the energy constraint.

Therefore, there is a clear need to accomplish a more

efﬁcient battery usage to reduce the power demand of

drone targets.

The goal of this paper is to understand the in-

troduction, growth and status of drones as an object

of study in energy-aware Software Engineering, fo-

cusing on understanding the current efforts to ensure

the last quality, autonomy, from the point of view of

energy-awareness for drones.

The rest of the paper is structured as follows:

Section 2 reviews the development of drones and

their consolidation as energy-aware systems; Section

3 identiﬁes the current available literature on energy-

aware Software Engineering for drones; Section 4

maps and discusses the current research literature that

crosses the roads between drone development and

energy-aware Software Engineering; Section 5 dis-

cusses identiﬁable trends in this research track. Fi-

nally, Section 6 sets tracks for future research and

draws conclusions.

2 DEVELOPMENT OF DRONES

AS ENERGY-AWARE SYSTEMS

There is no ofﬁcial, standard classiﬁcation of un-

manned aerial vehicles. We can outline a division on

the basis of private use for recreation or use for air

work. Nevertheless, one of the most important char-

acteristic upon which to make a categorization is the

size. A very clear distinction exists between large and

small drones. In the small category, there is further

classiﬁcation into nano, mini and micro drones. Fur-

ther distinction is made upon the endurance and range

values. Table 1 shows a categorization of drones

which is based on (Sydney, School of Surveying &

Spatial Information Systems Faculty of Engineering,

2016; Abdullah, 2016; Watts et al., 2012).

Table 1: Drones classiﬁcation.

Category

name

Load

(kg)

Range

(km)

Alt.

(m)

Life

(hrs)

Nano 0.1 1 100 0.5

Micro 5 <10 250 1

Mini <25 <10 300 2

Close range 25-150 10-30 3000 2-4

Mid-range 50-250 30-70 3000 3-6

High range >250 >70 >3000 >6

In terms of operation, airworthiness is one of the

most important qualities for drones (Corral et al.,

2015). This term is used to point out the suitability

of the aircraft for a safe ﬂight. A drone is said to exe-

cute a safe ﬂight when its attitude and manageability

stay within its operating parameters. One of the key

attributes that drive drones airworthiness is to have

sufﬁcient power to assure height, movement and op-

erability for all the duration of the ﬂight. Other impor-

tant characteristics of drones are size, maximum alti-

tude, endurance and range of the device’s data links,

as stated by (de Fatima Bento, 2008). Technological

advances have led to great capabilities of drones ris-

ing many beneﬁcial ways in diverse application ﬁelds.

The market has grown enough as to offering to

the user different types of drones which respond to

speciﬁc needs and provide speciﬁc capabilities. Also,

hardware accessories, such as GPS chips, enable the

aircraft to be always aware of its position, cam-

eras allow observation capture of image and footage,

built-in torch lamps permit drone operation at night.

Lightweight energy sources (such as LiPo batteries,

which are among the most common batteries used to

power drones) provide the possibility for other on-

board facilities.

Nowadays, small drones are able of carrying and

delivering load: the ﬁrst air delivery from Amazon

is already a reality, and an Australian start-up used a

drone to carry 4.5 kg of medical aid from Virginia to a

clinic about a mile away in a 3-minute ﬂight

. Aerial

photography is no longer just a hobby: many product

advertisements include aerial footage and companies

pay generous amount of money to make their prod-

ucts attractive. For example, drones have been pro-

posed as tool for real estate sales; also, big-budget

Hollywood movies are moving towards drones which

offer economic aerial footage. Drones have also been

used during sports and cultural events to provide full

coverage of them. Sochi 2014 Winter Olympics was

the ﬁrst sports event to offer footage of snowboarders

in action thanks to the operation of drones.

However, using drones in all these targets require

them to be unquestionably airworthy. For instance,

there was an event where a drone was used to pro-

vide full coverage (the 3-Tre FIS Alpine Ski World

Cup 2016 in Madonna di Campiglio, Italy). A drone

crashed out of the sky, landing barely behind the skier

as he made his way down the track. The hypothesis is

that the battery was discharged (Trentino, 2015).

Compared to large ﬂying devices, drones reﬂect a

wider range of technical limitations such as load ca-

pacity they can carry, ﬂight duration (10-20 minutes),

and limited ﬂight range and speed. As drones are in-

creasingly being used all over the world, their usage

must ﬁt a regulatory framework. Many basic national

http://www.australiaunlimited.com/business/the-rise-

of-the-drones

ICEIS 2017 - 19th International Conference on Enterprise Information Systems

722

safety rules apply, but are not the same all over Eu-

rope. The European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)

has published a Technical Opinion on the operation

of drones which will be used as the basis for all future

work related to drone usage

. The American Federal

Aviation Administration (FAA) requires that anyone

who owns a drone of a certain weight (more than 250

gr and less than 25 kg) must register it before ﬂying

outdoors

3 DEVELOPMENT OF DRONES

AS ENERGY-AWARE SYSTEMS

In the last years, the economization of energy in com-

puter equipment has become a popular research topic

because of the high impact of power consumption in

different computing ecosystems. For example, there

is a big need of reducing power usage on battery-

powered equipment (e.g., phones, tablets, wearables,

drones, etc.) considering that power consumption di-

rectly impacts the device’s operation and autonomy.

At the same time, it is not desired to decrease perfor-

mance, dependability and other operational qualities

in favor of saving energy (Boucher, 2014).

Many research works share as major goal the de-

velopment of techniques to economize the power con-

sumption of computer equipment. We can group these

projects in two families, considering their ﬁeld of ap-

plication. The ﬁrst group focuses on architectures,

materials and manufacturing techniques, whilst the

second one concentrates on the reducing consumption

of energy resources driven directly by the execution of

software.

The ﬁrst family is purely hardware-oriented, in

which the main topics include semiconductor tech-

nologies, microprocessor arrangement, prevention of

heat and power dissipation, and other similar top-

ics. They analyze how electronic components can

be designed and manufactured in such fashion to de-

liver the highest processing capabilities without de-

manding the usual loads of energy required by elec-

tronic components. This research track belongs to

the ﬁelds of electrical engineering, electronic engi-

neering, semiconductor technology and similar disci-

plines.

On the other hand, a second family of research

works focuses in understanding the impact of soft-

ware in power usage. That is, they study and ana-

lyze how software products can contribute to have a

https://www.easa.europa.eu/document-library/

opinions/opinion-technical-nature

https://registermyuas.faa.gov

perceptible effect on the demand of energy of the sys-

tem. Consequently, some of those works also concern

on studying how software products can be prepared

to utilize more efﬁciently the available hardware re-

sources. In this way, from the design and execution

of the software point of view, the hardware should re-

ceive instructions previously engineered to maximize

its capabilities while using less energy.

In this ﬁeld, it has been analyzed the inﬂuence

of the different stages of software execution in the

overall power consumption in a machine, including

compiling techniques, context switching, memory ac-

cesses, etc. (Min et al., 2012; Vallina-Rodriguez and

Crowcroft, 2013; Vieira et al., 2012).

Drones with increasing operative capabilities open

a wide range of service and revenue opportunities

where energy consumption can be an important road-

block and can prevent the drone from accomplish its

mission. In consequence, it is necessary to have both

hardware and software strategies to administrate bet-

ter the way in which the drone will invests its energy

resources for the best beneﬁt of its operation.

4 SOFTWARE ENGINEERING

RESEARCH ON ENERGY

AWARENESS FOR DRONES

To understand better the current progress of energy-

aware Software Engineering applied to drones, we

surveyed three major digital libraries (i.e, IEEE

Xplore, ACM Digital Library and ScienceDirect)

looking for research papers that cover different per-

spectives for designing and implementing energy

aware software. To make a ﬁnal selection of the most

relevant research works, we established as criteria:

1. research works should describe a technique for the

design, implementation, evaluation, measurement

or optimization on energy consumption in drones;

2. the proposed technical approach should have been

put in practice in at least one case study.

To ensure a current orientation of the topic at

hand, we considered only papers published from 2015

to the date. The selection of this date is not arbitrary,

but it represents a turning point in the number of re-

search works in this topic, according to the volume

found in the mentioned libraries.

As exclusion criteria, potential duplicated in-

stances shall be dismissed. Research papers that do

not relate to software design, development and im-

plementation shall be dismissed as well. The initial

retrieval of the available literature was done using a

series of keywords to search, as shown in Table 2.

The Incorporation of Drones as Object of Study in Energy-aware Software Engineering

723

Table 2: Survey in energy awareness for drones: keywords

and numeric results before the exclusion criteria is applied.

Keyword IEEE ACM Science

Direct

Drone 476 163 1301

“Drone consumption” 0 0 0

“Drone optimization” 0 0 0

“Drone energy” 1 3 2

Table 2 also shows the numeric results of the anal-

ysis of the state of the art in this ﬁeld. The num-

ber of references about drone development (includ-

ing energy aspects) in non-academic sources is large.

Newsrooms, divulgation sources, technology maga-

zines and several more references cover different as-

pects of drone development in a way that the topic is

appealing to a general audience. This high volume of

information conﬁrms the broad interest of drones and

their application. However, this number of sources

contrasts with the low number of academic references

available in the referred libraries. Despite the large

number of papers about drones, from Table 2 we can

also understand that as a research topic, energy aware-

ness for drones is still emergent, and that professional

research about it is uncommon.

Taking as starting point the papers surveyed from

the digital libraries, we had to handpick the research

papers about drones that also concerned about energy

consumption. We also extracted a second group of

papers from relevant citations and references. The re-

sult of this selection is a group of 10 research papers

distributed as shown in Table 3.

Table 3: Survey in energy awareness for drones: keywords

and numeric results after the exclusion criteria are applied.

Keyword IEEE ACM Science

Direct

Other

Cited

Drone energy 1 3 2 4

(Park et al., 2016) identiﬁed the low volume of re-

search works in energy aware techniques for drones,

discussing that energy efﬁciency and battery aging af-

fect the drone delivery business. Authors discuss that

no prior work has extensively assessed the problem

for energy awareness in the drone business. In their

paper, authors propose a holistic and detailed analysis

on the proﬁtability and time to delivery of the drone

delivery business.

(Clarke, 2014) outlines critical attributes for the

airworthy operation of a drone. Even though almost

all the characteristics concern the maneuverability,

safety, and other airborne conditions of the drone, the

author also mentions characteristics related to the re-

source usage of the device; for instance, providing “a

sufﬁcient source of power to maintain movement, to

implement the controls, and to operate sensors and

data feeds, for the duration of the ﬂight” and “the abil-

ity to navigate to destination locations within the op-

erational space”.

In software-based approaches used for battery op-

timization in drones, currently there is no software so-

lution available on the market to optimize the battery

consumption in a target platform as drones. A sug-

gested research agenda is identiﬁed by (Corral et al.,

2015), whose paper aims at establishing a method-

ology to design and implement software-driven ap-

proaches to measure and optimize drone’s energy

consumption. The same authors also present research

works that exemplify methods to measure the energy

consumed by drones (Corral et al., 2016a) and to opti-

mize energy consumption in drones using preset ﬂight

proﬁles (Corral et al., 2016b). Following this ap-

proach, authors claim to accomplish savings up to

about 5.6 seconds of the total ﬂight time, showing

a very low but noticeable contribution to the overall

drone autonomy.

(Zorbas et al., 2013) studied a mathematical for-

mulation for minimizing the total energy consump-

tion of a ﬂeet of camera-enabled drones, depending

on the localization and height of the event they should

cover. Following their proposed algorithm, authors

claim savings up to 150% of the total energy con-

sumed.

In a similar track proposed by Corral and Zorbas,

(Di Franco and Buttazzo, 2015) proposes an energy-

aware path planning algorithm that minimizes energy

consumption while satisfying a set of other require-

ments, such as coverage and resolution. The algo-

rithm is based on an energy model derived from real

measurements. The algorithmic approach considers

the description of the covered area and the points that

are relevant for the survey, to design a path for optimal

scan.

The research works (Pace et al., 2015; da Silva and

Nascimento, 2016; Huang et al., 2015) also concern

about algorithms to plan missions in a way that the

return home is guaranteed.

5 RESEARCH TRENDS

Our literature review shows that there are still numer-

ous opportunities for research on the ﬁeld of energy

awareness for drones. Although energy-awareness for

non-stationary mobile devices is a consolidated re-

search ﬁeld, the inclusion of drones as an object of

study is still emerging. In a dynamic area like energy-

aware mobile systems, new methods, technologies

ICEIS 2017 - 19th International Conference on Enterprise Information Systems

724

and tools are developed with a very fast pace; how-

ever, after carefully surveying the current state of the

art we found the need for further exploration of power

measurement and estimation techniques for drones,

as well as researching and discussing deeply in opti-

mizations at application level, due that the majority of

the works concentrate at mobile targets of a different

nature, out of the scope of the operative ecosystems

usually found in drones.

Speaking of energy-aware Software Engineering,

existing strategies are mostly based on common non-

stationary devices like smartphones. Still, in mobile

devices of this kind, software-driven solutions appear

to be slow, trend that can be applied to the case of

drones. The core of research for energy optimization

based on software, currently concentrates on design-

ing and implementing algorithmic solutions to design

better routes or drone handling. There is a big gap in

research and implementation of software-driven solu-

tions at operative or application level, that is, software

that can operate the drone in a way that can help the

complete system to work investing less energy, much

like current research in mobile devices.

Software designers and programmers for drones

can learn from the extensive work that has been done

for energy-aware software in other mobile targets:

to cite just a few, (Paul and Kundu, 2010) shows

a quantitative review of energy consumption of An-

droid software routines, compared with the energy

spent by the same routine in Angstrom Linux. In this

paper, authors survey the energy required by the ex-

ecution target under the premise that mobile devices

should concern on optimizing the battery utilization.

The work of Vieira et al. (2012) presented a perfor-

mance and energy consumption evaluation of appli-

cations of Android OS to ﬁnd a pattern of energy

consumption depending on the executed algorithm.

The authors identiﬁed what kind of algorithms lead to

improved energy efﬁciency on this operating system.

Other work, without implementing software bench-

mark the way in which mobile apps can affect the total

energy consumption of the system, providing a pro-

found discussion on design factors that could impact

software energy efﬁciency (Capra et al., 2012).

Worth to mention, we can include the research and

development in materials that can provide the drone

with frames, structures and batteries, which in addi-

tion to be long-lasting, they can be as well very light

in a way that they do not contribute severely to the

overall weight of the drone.

Somatis Technologies Inc. worked on a kinetic

energy composite that turns the interaction of wind

pressure and vibrations into an electrical power en-

ergy source and suggests that it could triple the bat-

tery life for handheld and gliding drones

. The chip

maker Qualcomm which means to provide an opti-

mization to the chipset SnapDragon Flight for drones;

the goal is to extend the battery lifetime from 20 to 40

to 60 minutes

. Other experiments were carried out

using the number of batteries as a control variable. An

hexacopter was used and the battery count was opti-

mized by incrementally adding 6000 mAh batteries

(ﬁrst 1 battery was added, then 4, 5 and 6) and cal-

culate the ﬂight time based on the current draw and

vehicle charge capacity (Scaramuzza et al., 2014).

6 FUTURE WORK AND

CONCLUSIONS

Drones play a key role in the future technology land-

scape. However, their potential is limited due to bat-

tery capacity, which represents a major constraint.

For a real and proﬁtable application in mission-

critical, highly dependable environments, in addition

to improving battery technology, a research agenda

should focus on implementing hardware and software

driven techniques to optimize the power demand of

the drone system. These techniques should relate

directly to the optimization of the energy resources

available for a mission, considering that power en-

ables not only the ﬂight, but also the onboard facilities

that are powered (camera, webcam, beacons, etc.), as

well as the ability of the drone to complete its mission

successfully or to abort it and ﬁnd a landing place in

a safe manner.

Based on the results of our literature review we

can conclude that the inclusion of drones as object of

study in energy-aware Software Engineering is still in

an initial phase with much work yet to be done. To ex-

pand this horizon, we propose the following research

tracks to leverage the power of software to economize

power usage in a mission:

• generation of energy efﬁcient executable code for

drone applications,

• ofﬂoading of methods or computational routines

to minimize processor usage in drones,

• software-controlled presetting of economic pro-

ﬁles that can enable or disable built-in energy-

hungry components in the drone.

A critical quality and operative principle of drones

is their ability to perform at the highest standards

http://readwrite.com/2012/08/07/energized-new-

batteries-could-triple-drone-airtime/

https://developer.qualcomm.com/hardware/snapdragon-

ﬂight

The Incorporation of Drones as Object of Study in Energy-aware Software Engineering

725

away from a permanent energy supply. Software En-

gineering is facing a rich yet challenging opportunity

to take an active role in discovering better ways to

invest better the limited energy resources of a drone.

The challenge is simple: embrace drones as object of

study to foster software as a tool to optimize the over-

all power consumption of a drone system.

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