New Opportunities and Perspectives for the Electric Vehicle
Operation in Smart Grids and Smart Homes Scenarios
Vítor Monteiro
1
, João C. Ferreira
1,2
, J. G. Pinto
1
and João L. Afonso
1
1
University of Minho, Campus de Azurem, Guimarães, Portugal
2
ISCTE-IUL, Information Sciences, Tech. and Architecture Research Center (ISTAR-IUL), Lisbon, Portugal
Keywords: Electric Vehicle, Battery Charger, Smart Grids, Smart Homes, Power Quality, Renewables.
Abstract: New perspectives for the electric vehicle (EV) operation in smart grids and smart homes context are
presented. Nowadays, plugged-in EVs are equipped with on-board battery chargers just to perform the
charging process from the electrical power grid (G2V – grid-to-vehicle mode). Although this is the main
goal of such battery chargers, maintaining the main hardware structure and changing the digital control
algorithm, the on-board battery chargers can also be used to perform additional operation modes. Such
operation modes are related with returning energy from the batteries to the power grid (V2G- vehicle-to-grid
mode), constraints of the electrical installation where the EV is plugged-in (iG2V – improved grid-to-
vehicle mode), interface of renewables, and contributions to improve the power quality in the electrical
installation. Besides the contributions of the EV to reduce oil consumption and greenhouse gas emissions
associated to the transportation sector, through these additional operation modes, the EV also represents an
important contribution for the smart grids and smart homes paradigms. Experimental results introducing the
EV through the aforementioned interfaces and operation modes are presented. An on-board EV battery
charger prototype was used connected to the power grid for a maximum power of 3.6 kW.
1 INTRODUCTION
Each time more, the electric mobility is presented in
our society as a new paradigm that contributes for a
more efficient and sustainable mobility
(Rajashekara, 2013), (Raghavan, 2012), as well as
an important benefit to reduce the oil costs and the
greenhouse gas emissions (Milberg, 2011). In this
context, electric vehicles (EVs) are the main
boosters to support the electric mobility (Chan,
2010), (Chan, 2007), however, a full electric
mobility adoption is also dependent of major
technological issues (Khaligh, 2010), (Inoa, 2011),
(Ferreira, 2013). Nowadays, in order to perform the
EV batteries charging process, on-board or off-board
chargers are used (Gautam, 2012), (Monteiro, 2014),
with contact or contactless (wireless power transfer)
technologies (Ibrahim, 2015). Besides these
approaches, integrated EV chargers with the motor
drive or reconfigured chargers to support the
auxiliary battery are also used (Haghbin, 2013),
(Pinto, 2014). Independently of the EV charger, for
all the aforementioned solutions the EV is
plugged-in to the power grid to receive energy.
Nevertheless, with the EV adoption around the
world (for instance Canada (Hajimiragha, 2010) and
China (Song, 2010)), the power grids are facing a
new problem, once they were not projected to
support this new type of uncontrolled load, which
can cause power quality issues (Monteiro, 2011),
(Lopes, 2011), (Wirasingha, 2011). At the same
time, new opportunities for electricity markets and
for the integration of EVs with renewables are
emerging (Saber, 2011), (Zhao, 2012), (Ferreira,
2013). A scheme to manage the EV charging process
considering their uncertain arrival (as well as the
battery state-of-charge) and the energy prices is
presented in (Zhang, 2014), and an integrated
scheme to incorporate EVs with renewables is
presented in (Gao, 2014). Taking into account the
EV capacity to store energy and its dynamic
connection in the power grid, through bidirectional
chargers (Monteiro, 2016), it can operate as a
dynamic energy storage system, capable to consume
or deliver energy to the power grid in the place
where it is plugged-in (Kramer, 2008). When the EV
receives energy from the grid to charge the batteries,
the process is known as grid-to-vehicle (G2V), and
400
Monteiro, V., Ferreira, J., Pinto, J. and Afonso, J.
New Opportunities and Perspectives for the Electric Vehicle Operation in Smart Grids and Smart Homes Scenarios.
DOI: 10.5220/0006386804000407
In Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Vehicle Technology and Intelligent Transport Systems (VEHITS 2017), pages 400-407
ISBN: 978-989-758-242-4
Copyright © 2017 by SCITEPRESS – Science and Technology Publications, Lda. All rights reserved

when the EV delivers energy to the grid, the process
is known as vehicle-to-grid (V2G) (Kempton,
2005)(Yilmaz, 2013). An aggregator to manage such
operation modes is proposed in (Escudero-Garzás,
2012). A detailed study about the V2G mode as
support to stabilize the power grid and renewables
integration is analysed in (Kempton, 2015), and a
cost function considering the charging and
discharging process is presented in (Zhou, 2011).
The aforementioned scenarios are related with the
EV operation neglecting, for instance, the operation
of the other electrical appliances plugged-in in the
same electrical installation. In order to overcome
this drawback, a dynamic operation in G2V and
V2G modes according to the operation of the other
electrical appliances is presented. Hereafter, this
modes are identified as improved G2V (iG2V) and
improved V2G (iV2G). This dynamic operation
consists in adjust the consumed current to charge the
batteries according to the consumed current of the
electrical appliances, maintaining constant the total
current consumed by the electrical installation.
Therefore, overloads and overcurrent trips in the
main circuit breaker are prevent. This is more
relevant considering the future smart homes
scenarios. Besides exchange energy in bidirectional
mode with the power grid, the EV can also operate
as power quality compensator. This mode can be
divided in three cases: (1) The EV produces a
current without fundamental component to
compensate the current harmonic distortion of the
electrical installation caused by the nonlinear
electrical appliances, where it does not use any
energy from the batteries, preventing their aging; (2)
The EV produces a current to compensate the power
factor of the electrical installation caused by the
reactive power consumption of the electrical
appliances, where the EV does not use energy from
the batteries; (3) The EV operates as an off-line
uninterruptible power supply (UPS) during power
outages in short periods of time once is used energy
from the batteries (Monteiro, 2016).
Figure 1 shows the integration of an EV into a
home considering the different energy flows. All of
the aforementioned operation modes will contribute
to the interactivity between the EVs and the smart
grids, as well as to the development of smart homes
(Gungor, 2012). In such context, global energy
management solutions are presented in (Liu, 2013)
and (Jin, 2013). Therefore, the EV can operate as an
adaptable active element, with skills for consuming,
storing, and providing energy. Associated with these
operation modes, the EV should establish a
bidirectional interactivity with the power grid, where
Figure 1: Integration of an EV into the electrical
installation of a home.
information and communication technologies are
presented (Güngör, 2011). A mobile information
system used to inform the EV user about
recommendations to manage the autonomy, the
electricity market and charging stations is proposed
in (Ferreira, 2014).
This paper aims to demonstrate an overview
about the EV operation through an experimental
validation of the aforementioned operation modes
and its contribution as enabler for the future
paradigms of smart grids and smart homes. For such
purpose, a 3.6 kW on-board EV battery charger was
used to validate all the operation modes. The rest of
this paper is organized as follows. Section II
introduces the on-board EV charger used to validate
the operation modes. Section II presents the
experimental results and a detailed and independent
analysis of each operation mode. A discussion is
presented in section IV, and, finally, the main
conclusions are in section IV.
2 ON-BOARD EV BATTERY
CHARGER
This section describes the developed 3.6 kW
on-board EV battery charger, which is composed by
an ac-dc-dc converter, i.e., an ac side to interface the
power grid, a shared dc-link between the two
converters, and a dc side to interface the EV
batteries. IGBTs model IXXR110N65B4H1 and
gate drivers model SKHI61R are used. This EV
charger has a total power density of 0.43 kW/liter
and presents 94% of efficiency for the maximum
power of 3.6 kW.
Figure 2 shows the laboratorial
setup used to obtain the experimental results, where
New Opportunities and Perspectives for the Electric Vehicle Operation in Smart Grids and Smart Homes Scenarios
401

is presented the developed on-board EV charger, and
table I presents its main characteristics.
3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
This section presents a detailed explanation about
the main experimental results of the EV introduction
into the power grids in smart grids and smart homes
context. Such experimental results were obtained in
laboratory environment with the aforementioned
on-board EV charger and with a set of lead-acid
batteries, electrical appliances, and a system
emulating a set of PV panels. The operation in the
different operation modes was selected by the user.
A digital oscilloscope Yokogawa DL708E was used
to catch the experimental results. It is important to
note that the battery state-of-charge was not
analyzed in this paper due to space restrictions.
3.1 Improved Grid-to-Vehicle
The actual EVs are equipped with on-board battery
chargers to perform the charging process from the
power grid without consider constraints of the
electric installation. This operation mode is
identified in the literature as grid-to-vehicle (G2V).
Figure 3 shows the power grid voltage (v
g
), the total
home current (i
h
), the electrical appliances current
(i
ea
) and the EV current (i
ev
) during the charging
process (G2V). In this operation mode, the charging
power is defined by the battery management system,
which establishes two distinct charging stages in the
dc side (i.e., in the batteries): (1) initially with
constant current and variable voltage; (2) and after
the first stage with constant voltage and variable
current. In this experimental result, a power of
3 kW, a total harmonic distortion (THD) of 3% in
the voltage, a THD of 2% in the current, and a
power factor of 0.99 were measured. It is important
to note that the EV current is sinusoidal due to the
current control strategy. Therefore, the EV does not
contributes to aggravate the power quality in the
electrical installation.
The main disadvantage of this operation mode is
related with the operation of the other electrical
appliances that are also plugged-in in the same
electrical installation and working at the same time.
Turning on several appliances at the same time in
the electrical installation, the main circuit breaker
acts to prevent damages for the installation. This
situation will interrupt the charging process and,
inherently, will increase the time required to perform
the charging process. In order to mitigate this
Figure 2: Laboratorial setup used to obtain the
experimental results (a) and structure of the on-board EV
charger (b).
Table 1: Main characteristics of the on-board EV battery
charger.
Parameter Value
Grid Voltage 230 V
Grid Frequency 50 Hz
Maximum Power 3.6 kW
Maximum dc Current 10 A
Output Voltage 250 V to 400 V
Switching Sampling 40 kHz
Switching Frequency 20 kHz
Input Inductance 5 mH
Output Inductance 2 mH
Output Capacitor 0.68 mF
Dc-link Capacitor 3 mF
drawback, the EV charging process can be
performed with a smart control strategy, where the
EV charging power is adjusted according to the
operation of the other electrical appliances.
SMS 2017 - Special Session on Sustainable mobility solutions: vehicle and traffic simulation, on-road trials and EV charging
402

Figure 3: Experimental results during the EV battery
charging: Power grid voltage (v
g
); Total home current (i
h
);
Electrical appliances current (i
ea
); EV current (i
ev
).
Figure 4: Experimental results during the controlled EV
battery charging as iG2V: Total home current (I
H
);
Electrical appliances current (I
EA
); EV current (I
EV
).
Figure 4 shows the root mean square (rms)
values of the home current (I
H
), the current
consumed by the electrical appliances (I
EA
) and the
EV current (I
EV
). As expected, the EV charging
current is adjusted according to the current
consumed by the electrical appliances in order to
prevent the main circuit breaker actuation, i.e., the
home current is maintained with the same amplitude.
Figure 5 shows the instantaneous values of the
same variables (as presented in the previous figure)
in order to highlight the adjustment of the EV
current. It is important to note that this adjustment is
performed without sudden variations in the EV
current and without jeopardize the hardware of
on-board EV battery charger or the normal operation
of the electrical appliances. For such purpose,
Figure 5: Experimental results during the controlled EV
battery charging as iG2V: Power grid voltage (v
g
); Total
home current (i
h
); Electrical appliances current (i
ea
); EV
current (i
ev
).
advanced digital current control techniques are used
to control the EV current.
3.2 Improved Vehicle-to-Grid
Typically, the EV is introduced in the power grid to
perform the battery charging process, however, it
can also be used in bidirectional mode. Therefore,
instead of receiving energy, the EV is used to deliver
energy back to the power grid, i.e., part of the stored
energy in the batteries is returned to the power grid.
From the power grid point of view, this operation
mode, identified as vehicle-to-grid (V2G), is
important to contribute to stabilize the power grid
and, in a smart grid scenario, is performed with the
power grid agreement and the convenience of the
EV driver in terms of the energy stored in the
batteries. For such purpose, the EV should receive a
set point of energy and a time interval to operate in
V2G mode. Figure 6 shows the power grid voltage
(v
g
), the total home current (i
h
), the electrical
appliances current (i
ea
) and the EV current (i
ev
)
during the V2G mode, i.e., when is delivered energy
to the power grid from the EV batteries. It is
important to note that the EV current (i
ev
) is in phase
opposition with the power grid voltage (v
g
), meaning
that the power grid receives energy.
Considering a smart home scenario, besides the
simple discharging process to the power grid, the EV
can be used to deliver energy to the home when the
required current exceeds the nominal current of the
electrical installation. Figure 7 shows this scenario,
where in an initial phase the EV is just plugged-in
(without operating in G2V nor V2G) and when the
New Opportunities and Perspectives for the Electric Vehicle Operation in Smart Grids and Smart Homes Scenarios
403

Figure 6: Experimental results during the EV battery
discharging: Power grid voltage (v
g
); Total home current
(i
h
); Electrical appliances current (i
ea
); EV current (i
ev
).
Figure 7: Experimental results during the controlled EV
battery discharging as iV2G: Total home current (I
H
);
Electrical appliances current (I
EA
); EV current (I
EV
).
total current exceeds the nominal current the EV
starts its operation as V2G, i.e., the EV delivers the
difference of current. This kind of operation is
proposed as improved vehicle-to-grid (iV2G) and is
directly associated with the EV operation in smart
homes.
3.3 Interface with Renewables
As described in the previous items, the EV can be
introduced into the power grid to perform the
charging (iG2V) or discharging (iV2G) process.
Such operation modes can be framed with the smart
grids or smart homes scenarios, where is also
predictable the introduction of renewables, mainly
PV panels. Therefore, besides the power grid, the
Figure 8: Experimental results during the EV battery
charging from the power grid and from renewables: Total
home current (I
H
); EV current (I
EV
); PV panels current
(I
PV
).
EV can also perform the charging process with
energy from renewables.
Figure 8 shows the rms
values of the total home current (I
H
), the EV current
(I
EV
) and the PV panels current (I
PV
) for a case,
where, in an initially phase the EV batteries are
charged only with energy from the power grid and in
a second phase with energy from the power grid and
from renewables. This experimental result was
obtained in laboratory environment with an
emulated installation of PV panels. Taking into
account the predictable smart homes with the
integration of renewables (mainly PV panels), this
scenario will be frequently due to the variable
energy production from renewables.
3.4 Integration as a Power Quality
Compensator
As presented in the previous items, the EV can be
used to dynamically exchange energy with the
power grid in bidirectional mode considering the
power grid constrains and the requirements of the
EV user. Nevertheless, the EV can also be integrated
into the power grid as a power quality compensator.
This operation mode is directly associated with the
future smart homes, and is proposed in this paper
considering three distinct cases: (1) the EV is used to
compensate current harmonics in the electrical
installation caused by the nonlinear electrical
appliances; (2) the EV is used to compensate the
power factor of the electrical installation caused by
the reactive power consumption of some electrical
appliances; (3) the EV is used as energy backup
system, i.e., operating as an off-line uninterruptible
SMS 2017 - Special Session on Sustainable mobility solutions: vehicle and traffic simulation, on-road trials and EV charging
404

power supply (UPS). The experimental results
presented in this item were obtained in laboratory
environment with real nonlinear electrical
appliances. Figure 9 shows the power grid voltage
(v
g
), the total home current in the electrical
installation (i
h
), the current consumed only by the
electrical appliances (i
ea
), and the current produced
by the EV (i
ev
) during the EV operation
compensating current harmonics. Taking into
account that the EV produces a current with high
harmonic distortion, the total home current is
sinusoidal and in phase with the power grid voltage,
i.e., it is the sum of the i
ea
current with the i
ev
current. The EV current is determined according to
the harmonic distortion of the current consumed by
the electrical appliances, i.e., the EV current does
not have fundamental component once the objective
is compensate the harmonic distortion of the
electrical installation. It is important to note that
during this operation mode is not used any energy
from the EV batteries, i.e., the current circulates in
the phase and neutral wires only through the ac-dc
front-end converter. Besides the aforementioned
case, Figure 10 shows the power grid voltage (v
g
)
and the EV current (i
ev
) when the EV is used to
compensate the power factor of the electrical
installation where it is plugged-in. For such purpose,
the EV produces a current (that can be leading or
lagging with the power grid) in order to obtain a
unitary power factor in the point of common
coupling. The phase angle between the EV current
and the power grid voltage is determined according
to the reactive power consumed by the electrical
appliances connected in the same electrical
installation. Also in this case is not used any energy
from the EV batteries, representing an important
advantage. In the previous operation modes, the EV
is used to compensate power quality problems
associated with the total current in the home.
However, the EV can also be useful to operate as an
off-line UPS during short periods of power outages.
Figure 11 shows the voltage applied to the electrical
appliances (v
ea
), the current consumed by the
electrical appliances (i
ea
), and the EV current (i
ev
).
As shown, this experimental result was obtained
when a power outage occurs. In this case, initially,
the EV is just plugged-in and, when the power
outage occurs, the EV starts its operation as UPS,
i.e., producing a voltage to feed the electrical
appliances. Taking into account that the transition
was performed in a short period of time (much
smaller than the grid frequency), from the point of
view of the electrical appliances was not identified
any disturbance in its operation. This operation
Figure 9: Experimental results during the EV operation
compensating current harmonics: Power grid voltage (v
g
);
Total home current (i
h
); Electrical appliances current (i
ea
);
EV current (i
ev
).
Figure 10: Experimental results during the EV operation
producing reactive power: Power grid voltage (v
g
); EV
current (i
ev
).
mode represents an important contribution for the
future smart homes, where can be preferable to use a
small part of the stored energy from the EV
batteries, instead of stay without energy during a
power outage.
4 DISCUSSION
Nowadays, the EV is considered the main alternative
for replacing the traditional polluting vehicles with
internal combustion engines. This is an important
contribution, however, the EV can also emerge in
the future smart grids and smart homes with a set of
new valences. Besides the operation modes grid-to-
New Opportunities and Perspectives for the Electric Vehicle Operation in Smart Grids and Smart Homes Scenarios
405

Figure 11: Experimental results during the EV operation
as an UPS: Power grid voltage (v
g
); Total home current
(i
h
); Electrical appliances current (i
ea
); EV current (i
ev
).
vehicle (G2V), improved grid-to-vehicle (iG2V) and
vehicle-to-grid (V2G), validated in the experimental
results, the EV can also contribute with other
innovative modes. For instance, the EV can combine
the operation in G2V, V2G, or iG2V with the
operation as power quality conditioner. Moreover,
besides the operation in smart homes scenario, the
presented operation modes can be extended to smart
grids, i.e., the EV can operate in such modes in any
place where it is plugged-in.
5 CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents new opportunities and
perspectives for the electric vehicle (EV) operation
in smart grids context. For such purpose a 3.6 kW
on-board EV battery charger was developed and
used in the experimental validation. Along the paper
several experimental results are presented, including
the EV charging and discharging processes from and
to the power grid, the charging process from
renewables, and the operation according to the other
electrical appliances connected in the electrical
installation, mainly, to prevent power quality
problems. As shown in the paper, these operation
modes represent an added value to the EV
introduction into power grids, and an important
contribution for the smart grids and smart homes
paradigms.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work has been supported by COMPETE:
POCI-01-0145-FEDER-007043 and FCT –
Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia within the
Project Scope: UID/CEC/00319/2013. This work is
financed by the ERDF – European Regional
Development Fund through the Operational
Programme for Competitiveness and
Internationalisation ‐ COMPETE 2020 Programme,
and by National Funds through the Portuguese
funding agency, FCT ‐ Fundação para a Ciência e a
Tecnologia, within project SAICTPAC/0004/2015‐
POCI‐ 01‐0145‐FEDER‐016434.
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