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4 DISCUSSION
Subjective Memory Complaints (SMC) are reports
of problems with, or changes in, memory, being
often a source of distress among older adults (Yates
et al., 2017). Indeed, although the subjective decline
lies within the normal limits of cognitive ageing, it
negatively influences everyday functioning.
However, attentional resources have been found to
be critical for subjects’ perception of everyday
memory functioning, which seems related to the role
of prefrontal attention systems for memory retrieval
(Davidson et al., 2006). Furthermore, it has been
demonstrated that depression or anxiety may also
influence the expression of SMC (Balash et al.,
2013). Therefore, the examination of memory
efficiency in older subjects requires not only
memory tasks, but additional measures of cognitive
function (focusing on attention), as well as mood
examination. Criticaly, recent evidence from both
neuroimaging and behavioral outcomes research
supports the ability of the brain to adapt, modify,
and learn throughout, at a minimum, the early stages
of dementia. For instance, evidence from functional
neuroimaging has shown that AD patients can use
additional neural resources in the prefrontal cortex to
compensate for losses attributable to the
degenerative process of the disease (Grady et al.,
2003). Moreover, neurofeedback (NFB) training has
been found to improve attention abilities in elderly
people (Angelakis et al., 2007; Wang & Hsieh,
2013). Taken together, these findings suggest that
NFB may have a place in the treatment of
individuals with Subjective Memory Complaints, as
well as in patients in very mild stages of
Alzheimer’s disease. Importantly, Alzheimer’s
disease (AD) is a chronic neurodegenerative
disorder that leads to progressive decline of
cognitive functions, along with behavioral
disturbances and insidious loss of autonomy in daily
living activities (Dubois et al., 2014). Its incidence
increases exponentially with age, and doubles every
5 years after the age of 65 (Kukull et al., 2002; Qiu
et al., 2009; Corrada et al., 2010), being the most
common cause of dementia in late adult life.
Accordingly, and because of the unprecedented level
of aging in developed countries, the health care costs
associated with AD are exceptional high, imposing a
tremendous burden on modern societies. Currently,
two classes of drugs, cholinesterase inhibitors [ChE-
I] and N-metil-D-aspartate [NMDA] receptor
antagonist, are recommended for the symptomatic
treatment of AD, each targeting a different
neurochemical component thought to underlie the
condition (Cummings, 2000). Unfortunately, none of
the available treatments is able to stop or reverse the
disease progression, and their cost-effectiveness has
been questioned (Loveman et al., 2006). Thus,
continuing efforts are required, with an urgent need
for the development of novel therapeutic strategies,
envisaging not only pharmacological but also non-
pharmacological interventions. This project
represents a first step on this path, even though
considerable development and controlled clinical
trials will be required before these BCI interventions
earn a place in our standard of clinical care.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research project is supported by UrgoTech.
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