Grounded Theory in Guidance and Counseling Research
Syahril Syahril
1
and Juliana Batubara
2
1
STAIN Watampone, Bone, Indonesia
2
UIN Imam Bonjol, Padang, Indonesia
1 2
Keywords: Grounded theory, Guidance and Counselling, Symbolic Interaction.
Abstract: Grounded theory is a qualitative research method that uses a number of systematic procedures aimed at
developing action-oriented theories, interactions, or processes based on data obtained from the field Grounded
research method, currently, is not only used in sociology, but has been used in various fields of science, such
as health, education, psychology and guidance and counselling. The reasons for using grounded theory in
guidance and counselling research are: 1). researchers want to develop a number of theories that have not
been tested strongly in explaining the concept of human life experience, 2) Researchers want to understand
possible direct experience (source) data and want to be able to display a detailed analysis related to the study.
The impact of the use of grounded theory method in other fields raises its own problems in grounded theory
namely the number of researchers who do not really understand the procedure in developing the theory that
comes from the field data. In addition to the above problems that are often encountered in grounded theory
research, another problem is the analysis in grounded theory research requires a very deep analysis that
requires a long time in the implementation.
1 INTRODUCTION
The term guidance and counselling is a different
terminology. However, when the terminology is
coupled as a coherent service of experts in which
counselling is a technique used to facilitate
counselees in problem solving and constructive
decisions, while guidance contains a variety of
techniques that are more pedagogic in an effort to
develop long-term behavior in a way healthy and
develop a development environment that open wide
access to the counselee in order to obtain success in
learning. (Kartadinata, 2011).
Furthermore, in addition to the affirmation of
guidance and counselling terminology, a point that
needs to be emphasized is the scientific position of
guidance and counselling. Counselling is one of
counselling and counselling techniques is considered
closer to psychology so it, sometimes, is considered
to be part of psychology. However, education also
recognizes that guidance and counselling are part of
education. (Kartadinata, 2011).
Based on the above description, it can be
interpreted that guidance and counselling is a science
and is part of the science of education. Guidance and
counselling is said as a science can be seen from the
foundation: 1) ontology, that is what is studied from
the science?; 2) axiology, i.e. for what knowledge is
used? Or usefulness of the sciences; and 3)
epistemology, that is how to get the knowledge or
how to develop the science? (Susanto, 2011).
Firstly, the foundation of ontology, guidance and
counselling is said to be a science because of the
guidance of having a study. Guidance and counselling
studies are cognitive, affective of human behavior
and development (Gladdding, 2015). Secondly, the
foundation of axiology, the purpose of counselling
and counselling helps counselees to achieve their
developmental tasks on the personal-social, career,
and academic/learning aspects (MoNE, 2007);
Thirdly, the foundation of epistemology, the way
used to acquire knowledge in guidance and
counselling is the same as the other sciences that is by
using the scientific method of seeking the truth, that
is scientific truth. The scientific method is commonly
referred to as scientific research (Dallos & Vetere,
2005,). This research will give birth to science.
According to Almack (1930) the relationship between
science and research is the result and process.
Research is a process whereas science is the result
(see Figure 1).
510
Syahril, S. and Batubara, J.
Grounded Theory in Guidance and Counseling Research.
In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Educational Sciences (ICES 2017) - Volume 1, pages 510-516
ISBN: 978-989-758-314-8
Copyright © 2018 by SCITEPRESS – Science and Technology Publications, Lda. All rights reserved

Figure 1: Research is a process whereas science is the result
A different point is delivered by Whitney (1960).
He said that research and science have the same
position, that is the same process. The result is the
truth gained through research into the phenomenon of
a truth discovered through the scientific process
(Nasir, 2014). More details can be seen in Figure 2
below:
Figure 2: process of attaining truth which is found through
scientific process
Figure 2 explains that research and science have
the same position, that is a process of attaining truth
which is found through scientific process, that is, a
rational and empirical answerable truth because the
discovery is done scientifically. Conversely, many
truths to the phenomenon received are not through the
research process (Nasir, 2014).
Based on the data and research paradigm, the
research is divided into two, namely quantitative and
qualitative research. Quantitative research is a study
of the type of data in the form of numbers or
symptoms and events that quantified. Quantitative
paradigm is a study that refers to the flow of
positivism that research activities oriented to the
results in the form of conclusions that are definite and
clear, generally using the hypothesis. While
qualitative research is a research that the type of data
in the form of images or social phenomena that often
can be presented without the form of numbers, but in
the form of data exposure and sentences that describe
the situation, symptoms or events that exist
(Poerwanti, 2000).
Recently, the use of research in guidance and
counseling and psychotherapy is dominated by
quantitative research. Quantitative research is used to
help determine and describe characteristics of a
particular phenomenon. Such information is very
useful in developing interventions for both the
eradication and prevention of a person's problems.
Some quantitative research used is experimental
research, survey, descriptive quantitative and
correlational research (Cohen et al., 2007),. While the
qualitative method experienced rapid development in
the field of counseling and psychotherapy in the
1950s (McLeod, 2001).
One of the main features of qualitative research is
the uniqueness of the cases raised (Herdiansyah,
2002). Further, Herdianyah (2002) says because of its
uniqueness that qualitative research may not be
generally applicable and not for the sake of
generalization. The uniqueness of what is being
studied is almost in every qualitative research model.
Because of its uniqueness the qualitative research has
been widely used in various disciplines such as
anthropology, education, nursing, sociology,
psychology and counselling with various
ethnographic strategies, grounded theory,
phenomenology, biography and case studies (Happer,
2008). Of the five types of qualitative research,
currently grounded theory is a 'Leader Market' in
qualitative research because grounded theory is
designed to facilitate the process of 'discovery', or
direct theoretical generation of phenomena/ events
data not built from previous theories. This method
gives researchers a number of ways to challenge
challenges that are hostile to qualitative research.
2 THE DEFINITION OF
GROUNDED THEORY
Grounded theory was developed by two sociologists,
Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss in the book
entitled "The Discovery of Grounded Theory, (Glaser
& Strauss). The first objective is to rationalize the
theory that is grounded, processed and developed
through data processing activities during the research
process takes place. Second, formulate the logic and
characteristic of grounded theory while the third goal
is to legitimize qualitative research (Denzin &
Lincoln, 2000). The underlying point of Barney
Glaser and Anselm Strauss developed this method
because they did not accept views of sociologists at
the time who held that qualitative research cannot be
verified and challenged the dominant trend
"excessive dependence on quantitative testing
hypotheses derived from a small number of theories
and statistical approaches other" (Henwood &
Pidgeon, 2003). They further argued that researchers
need a method that will allow them to move from data
to theory so that new theories can emerge (Willg,
2008).
Research
(Process)
Science
(Result)
Research
(Process)
Science
(Process)
Truth
(Result)
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511

Grounded theory is a term used by many
researchers to describe the general method of
developing inductive theory constructs from data
sources collected as part of a qualitative research
study (Dillon, 2012). Grounded theory is a common
method for developing theory. Theoretical
development is based on data collection and analysis.
As the study progresses, theory evolves and the rate
of development occurs as data collection and analysis
takes place (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000).
Nowadays, grounded theory has evolved from
sociological roots to widespread adoption by
researchers in various fields, particularly in the fields
of health and nursing but also in education and
business as well as a number of psychological
specialties such as social, clinical, feminist,
organizational psychology, and environment and
guidance and counseling (McLeod, 2001, p. 70.,
Henwood & Pidgeon, 2003).
The use of grounded theory in guidance and
counselling is caused by several reasons, namely: 1)
Researchers want to develop a number of theories that
have not been tested strongly in explaining concept of
human life experience, 2) researchers want to dive
possible direct experience (source) data directly and
would like to be able to present a detailed analysis of
the subject of research, 3) the researcher wishes to use
the analytical method which allows to use his
interpretation skills as a researcher before a more
rigorous analysis is then used in the next research
phase, 4) the researcher wishes to continuously
retrieve the data in the field on an ongoing basis until
the built theory can be realized (Dallos & Vetere,
2005).
The application of grounded theory in guidance
and counseling can be seen in some experts who have
used in their research. Martin et al (2005) used
grounded theory in analyzing articles and book
chapters describing the development and practice of
school-based counseling in 25 different countries in
order to identify factors affecting the development
and practice of school counseling and counseling.
There are 11 factors developed analytical framework;
namely: cultural factors, national needs, large social
movements, school counseling models, education
laws and policies, general characteristics of education
systems, professional counseling, research and
evaluation, related professions, community
organizations or NGO coalitions, and perceptions of
local stakeholders. The results show that the 11
factors identified in this study all reflect significant
and potential effects on school-based counseling
development and practice in the national context in
the United States. Thus, these 11 factors can serve as
a focal point for international comparative research
on the development of school-based counseling.
Furthermore, research conducted by Brott &
Myers (1999) aimed at generating a basic theory of
professional development of school counsellors. The
results showed that the determination of counselling
programs in schools, the transformation process
emerged as school counsellors moving from the
determination of the program based on external
influences (namely structural) such as the accepted
undergraduate training for the internal
conceptualization (namely attitude) of the role.
Another research results show the professional
identity of the counsellor develops in accordance with
the development of time and is part of the process of
experience and maturity.
3 THE PHILOSOPHY
FOUNDATION OF GROUNDED
THEORY
Grounded theory research is developed from the
philosophical foundations of symbolic interaction
(Annels, 1996). Symbolic interaction is a theory of
human behavior and an approach to investigate
human behavior and group behavior. According to
symbolic interactions, humans actively interpret their
own body language in social interaction and act on
their interpretation (Shibutani, 1955). Through social
interaction, people become aware of what others are
doing or what they are willing to do. In turn, one's
behavioral mode takes into account the behavior of
others who interact with it through a process called
"collective action" (Blumer, 1969).
Aldiabat & Navenec (2011) argue that there is an
equality of objectives and ontological,
epistemological, and methodological assumptions so
that symbolic interactions serve as the philosophical
basis of grounded theory. Judging from the objective
equation, the main purpose of both is to provide a
theory that explores human behavior, or an approach
to study human behavior and the life of human groups
(Chenitz & Swanson, 1986).
The equations of the ontological, epistemological,
and methodological assumptions of both namely,
first, the assumption "ontological refers to the nature
of reality and human knowledge of reality. For
researchers who use symbolic interaction and
grounded theory, the existence of reality in human life
as meaning" social that can be shared.
Second, the epistemological assumption refers to
the naturalness of the relationship between the parties
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knowing the researcher and the participant
experiencing the social phenomenon. For the method
of symbolic interaction and grounded theory, the
reality of human and social meanings shared by
human beings can be explained only through the
interaction among the researchers themselves with
their participants in the context of curiosity over the
existing phenomenon.
Third, methodological assumptions refer to how
researchers can deepen the social experience being
explored through his research, how the "social
experience formed and how the social experience"
gave meaning to human life (Guba & Lincoln, 1994).
4 THE PRAXIS OF GROUNDED
THEORY
The main purpose of the grounded theory research
method is to discover the "social process underlying
a phenomenon, which Glasser describes as,"
theoretical reflections and summary summaries of
various social patterns, the similarities of systems
occurring in social life of society, which can be
observed 'conceptually and subsequently understood
through the preparation of the basic social theory
(Glasser, 1978).
There are several steps that must be followed in
grounded theory research to arrive at the discovery of
a theory. According to Creswel (2015) put forward
eight steps of grounded theory research. The steps are
as follows:
Step 1. Decide the grounded theory design as the
best design to answer the research problems.
Grounded theory research is used when researchers
want to develop or modify theories, explain the
process and develop a general abstraction of the
interactions and actions of many people.
Step 2. Identify the process to be researched. In
this step, grounded theory researchers begin to
identify problems that will be researched and make
research questions. The grounded theory researchers
make research questions to focus their attention on
certain phenomena they wish to investigate (Strauss
& Corbin, 1990). Research questions in grounded
theory should be open and not closed questions that
require yes / no answers. As well as the researcher's
recommended questions are questions that are action-
oriented and process-oriented (e.g. 'How do
counselees do x?') (Willig, 2008). The purpose of
grounded theory is to uncover the basic social
processes underlying behavior (McLeod, 2003).
Step 3. Seek approval and access. This is
necessary so that the researcher gets guaranteed
protection on the spot and participant / participant
during conducting the research. In addition,
researchers need access to those who can provide an
understanding of the process to be researched.
Step 4. Carry out theoretical sampling. Like other
qualitative research, the sample size on the grounded
theory research may vary but tend to be small.
Sampling technique is done by purposive sampling.
However, the snow ball technique can be used when
in the research process one of the participants informs
the researcher of others who may be willing to
participate in the research. This may be necessary if
the observed phenomenon is rare as, for example, the
experience of caring for infants with fenilketonuria
(Bluf, 2005).
The data collected in the grounded theory research
is sourced from 8-20 informants. Less than 8
informants are basically the same case-based
approach. More than 20 informants tend to produce
too much data to be analyzed, and will result in
excessive collection of data (not necessarily
repetitive) (McLeod, 2003,).
Data collection in grounded theory research is
done by interview and/or observation of phenomenon
being studied (Bluf, 2005). Strauss and Corbin (1998)
suggested diaries; autobiographies, letters and
historical records, but many other sources can be used
such as newspapers, and other media.
Interviews can be done in a structured or semi-
structured manner. Structured interviews generally
consist of one or two open-ended questions.
Participants are then free to say as much or as little as
they want and researchers do not impose their own
ideas (Bluf, 2005). Questions that ask or encourage
participants to decipher things can be submitted to
participants (Patton, 2002). While the interviews
become semi-structured because of emerging key
issues such as, there is a need to focus the
development of theory. Issues that are less relevant to
emerging theories are not pursued. Interview
guidelines can be used to record questions that
highlight key issues (Holloway, 1997). If the problem
does not appear spontaneously the researcher can then
overcome it; the question will be important in
developing emerging theories.
Observation provides an opportunity to witness
the interactions that occur between individuals in the
social environment. The researcher gives an
interpretation of events. Combining observations
with interviews explains the meaning of the events
from the participants' perspective (Bluff, 2005). This
can be useful in discovering whether what is said
Grounded Theory in Guidance and Counseling Research
513

matches what is done in practice and can provide an
opportunity to clarify any difference.
Step 5. Data encoding (coding). Coding is a very
important activity among data collection activities
and elicits theory in explaining the existing data. The
purpose of doing coding in grounded theory is: 1)
obtaining accuracy in the research process, 2)
constructing a theory, 3) helping to overcome the
occurrence of bias and false assumptions, 4)
providing a basis and density of meanings, and 5)
developing sensitivity in generating new theory
(Budiasih, 2014). The coding steps start from open
coding, axial coding and selective coding.
Open coding
Open coding of observed data with one line, one
sentence or one transcription paragraph, each separate
event, idea or event is given a name or code
representing the concept under observation. The goal
is to gain a new understanding of the data.
Axial Coding
This axial coding process is used to create
relationships between categories and subcategories
and allows conceptual frameworks to emerge. Using
a paradigm model, a relationship is defined by
determining causes, contexts, possibilities,
consequences, covariates, and conditions (Glaser,
1978).
Step 6. Using selective coding and developing
theory. Selective coding is a process that links all the
categories and subcategories to the core categories so
as to facilitate the emergence of the 'storyline' or
theory.
Step 7. Validate the theory. After developing the
theory, grounded theory researchers validate the
process by comparing it with existing processes found
in the literature (Creswel, 2015).
Step 8. Write a grounded theory research report.
Grounded theory reports can be made ranging from
structures in emerging design and constructivist
design to more quantitatively oriented structures in
systemic design. The structure of grounded theory
research includes problems, methods, discussions,
and results. All grounded theory reports end with a
theory produced by researchers who report their
abstraction of the process under study (Creswel,
2015).
5 THE PROBLEM OF
GROUNDED THEORY
Currently, the popularity of grounded theory research
is increasingly visible in the number of studies, the
types of phenomena studied, geographical
distribution, and various disciplines. The spread of
grounded theory research even encompasses
specialization in certain disciplines (Denzin &
Lincon, 2000).
Further, Denzin & Lincoln (2000) explained that
the impact of such developments, grounded theory
research threatened to be just a kind of trend. The
same point expressed by Strauss & Corbin (1990)
also expresses concern that the increasing popularity
of grounded theory has resulted in researchers who
lack understanding of some of its components. So the
latter do not always set out to develop theories, fail to
develop solid theory or believe that they use grounded
theory because they use an inductive process.
There are various causes that make it happen, first,
they are too fixated on certain things. Second, they
may not be well aware that the variation of findings
may enrich grounded theory analysis. They are
usually over-coded because they consider this process
to be the most important aspect of grounded theory.
They tend to forget the theoretical encoding, which is
to populate how a substantive code can relate to other
substantive codes, such as hypotheses integrated into
theory (Glaser, 1978). However, theoretical coding
that is not based on a constant comparison will not
produce a rich theory. Third, the grounded theory
researcher himself conducted the research, not aiming
to develop the theory. Thus, it can be said that they
have completely forgotten the main aspect of the
grounded theory methodology, the grounded theory
methodology is used only to pass personal interests
(Denzin & Lincon 2000).
In addition to the developmental problems of
grounded theory, another problem faced by grounded
theory researchers is when in the grounded theory
research, grounded theory researchers often find it
difficult to find large amounts of data. Large data
leads to difficulties in researchers and requires a long
time in data analysts. Therefore, grounded theory
research is recommended to be carried out by
researchers who have experience and have patience in
conducting this research (Danijel, 2015).
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6 CONCLUSION
Grounded theory as a research model differs with
other qualitative research. The focus of grounded
theory research is on the development of a theory
constructed from the data of a phenomenon and in an
inductive analysis, not from the development of
previous theories.
One study of guidance and counselling is human
behavior, so that grounded theory research can be
applied to the field of guidance and counselling in
generating theory which conceptually explains social
process in understanding the phenomenon of human
behavior by using philosophical perspective of
symbolic interaction and paradigm of constructivism.
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