The Effect of Menstrual Cycle Phases on Vertical Jump Kinematics

and Kinetics in Elite Athletes

Ruaibah Yazani Tengah

, Ashril Yusof

, and Abd. Halim Mokhtar

Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia

Universiti Malaya, Malaysia

ruaibah@fsskj.upsi.edu.my

Keywords: Menses, Hormonal Responses, Power, Strength, Force, Velocity.

Abstract: Understanding the effect of menstrual cycle on kinematics and kinetics of exercise performance is important

in the sense that menstrual cycle disrupts the hormonal balance of athletes. Changes in hormonal balance

might affect exercise performance, and thus might affect longitudinal adaptations which occur from training,

and also with biomechanical changes which increase the likelihood of injury. Twelve well trained elite female

athletes voluntarily participated in this study. Thirteen kinematic and kinetic variables were measured via

force platform during a counter movement jump exercise. Three variables namely peak power (p = 0.030),

mean power (p = 0.010) and peak velocity (p = 0.016) were significantly differed (p < 0.05) across the three

menstrual cycle phases, where a reduction was clearly observed during the menses phase. Based on the results,

menses phase was detrimental to exercise performance that requires explosive power component for elite

level athletes. Thus, training with aims and goals of developing explosive power adaptation is not

recommended to be carried out by elite athletes during their menses, with change of strategy during

competition is suggested when a decrease in explosive power output might impair related sports specific

performance. As a conclusion, athletes’ menstrual cycle process should be monitored closely with training

and competition for performance purposes as well as for injury prevention.

1 INTRODUCTION

Sports performance particularly relies a lot on

strength and power capabilities of the athletes to

sprint faster (Cronin et.al, 2007; Delecluse et.al,

1995), jump higher (Cormie, et.al, 2010), minimize

the movement metabolic requirement (Storen, et.al,

2008) and improve other functional capabilities

(Harris, et.al, 2000). It is worth to note that a decrease

or an increase of muscle performance depends on

many factors which include, hormonal, metabolic and

neural factor.

Menstrual cycle phase experienced by the female

athletes caused continuous changes in hormone

concentration (Lebrun & Rumball, 2001) and thus

might alter the hormonal stimulus secreted and

received during the strength training session, which

might affect exercise performance. There have been

many studies that have investigated the effect of

menstrual cycle on human sports and exercise

performance (Di Brezzo Fort, & Brown, 1991; de

Jonge, 2003; Petrofsky, et.al, 1976; Sarwar, et.al,

1996; Sung, et.al, 2014; Gil, 2017; Pallavi, et.al,

2017). Certain phases of menstrual cycle have been

identified to increase risk of anterior cruciate

ligament injury (Abt, Sell, et.al, 2007). This is not

surprising as menses is a disruption to hormonal

activities (Oosthuyse, & Bosch, 2010) and changes in

hormonal function might affect physical activities

performance. Female sex hormones fluctuation

during the menstrual cycle is reported to have

significant effects on the neuromuscular system

(Hewett, 2000; Ekenros, et.al, 2017). On the other

hand, few studies performed on recreationally trained

athletes or non-athletics population indicated that

there were no significant differences on the

neuromuscular performance during menstrual phases

(Di Brezzo, et.al, 1994; Lebrun, et.al, 1995; Bennal,

et.al, 2016). At present, little data is available

regarding the effect of menstrual cycle on exercise

performance in elite athletes. Other findings suggest

that hormonal fluctuations due to menstrual cycle

phases do not interfere with maximal intensity whole

body sprinting and the metabolic responses to such

exercise (Tsampoukos, et.al, 2010). Since the finding

remains inconclusive, further investigation in this

area is needed. In term of team sports especially in

relation to match or game based sports such as hockey

334

Tengah, R., Yusof, A. and Mokhtar, A.

The Effect of Menstrual Cycle Phases on Vertical Jump Kinematics and Kinetics in Elite Athletes.

In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Sports Science, Health and Physical Education (ICSSHPE 2017) - Volume 1, pages 334-340

ISBN: 978-989-758-317-9

matches, the ability to sustain high intensity

intermittent loads is believed to be crucial for the final

outcome of the match (Reilly & Borrie, 1992). As

mentioned earlier, strength and power will improve

functional performance during the games which will

contribute towards improving the physical

performance of the athletes. Vertical jump exercise is

one of the typically used exercises for strength and

power training and assessment (Tricoli, et.al, 2005;

Hanson, et.al, 2007; Hester, et.al, 2017). A decrease

in vertical jump’s kinematics and kinetics during

training might decrease overall performance

adaptation longitudinally. Therefore, the purpose of

this study was to identify the differences in vertical

jump kinematics and kinetics that might occur

between the menses, follicular phase and luteal phase

of the menstrual cycle among elite athletes.

2 METHODS

2.1 Experimental Approach to the

Problem

Acute randomized within-subjects cross-over design

was used in this study, where subjects were asked to

attend one familiarization and three testing sessions.

The subjects randomly performed the testing session

starting at different phases of the menstrual cycle

which includes i) Menses (Day 1 – 5); ii) Follicular

Phase (Day 6 -13); and, iii) Luteal Phase (Day 15 – to

next cycle). This design allowed the subjects to

complete testing sessions within one menstrual cycle,

and some were allowed to carry over the testing

sessions into their next cycle. Two weeks before their

first testing session all subjects were asked to attend

a familiarization session at the Exercise Physiology

Laboratory, National Institute of Sports, Malaysia.

During the familiarization session, the subjects were

given briefings on exercise and experimental

protocols, procedures and exercise techniques.

2.2 Subjects

Twelve well trained elite female intermittent sport

athletes voluntarily participated in this study. All

subjects were elite athletes ranging from intermittent

sport athletes with the national team of Malaysia at

the time of the testing. Subjects’ selection criteria

were, aged between 18-28 years old with a maximum

oxygen uptake (O2max) of = 50 ml/kg/min, healthy

with no allergies, free of metabolic, cardiovascular or

respiratory diseases, nonsmokers and regular

menstrual cycles lasting 28 ± 2 days in duration (3

month monitoring of regularity). All subjects were

fully informed of the study’s purposes and possible

risks before signing a consent form. Subjects were

also told that they are free to withdraw at any stage of

the study without the obligation to give reasons. Prior

to commencing the study, approval was obtained

from the ethical committee of University of Malaya

and National Sports Council, Malaysia.

2.3 Equipment

Counter movement vertical jump was conducted on a

force plate (400 Series Performance Force Plate,

Fitness Technology, Australia) interfaced with

computer software (Ballistic Measurement System,

Fitness Technology, Australia) that allowed direct

measurements of displacement, force, velocity and

power variables. Data sampling rate was set at 200 Hz

with filter cut-off frequency rate of 10 Hz. Jump

height was estimated using the following equation [(h

= t2•g/8]. Where g is the gravitational acceleration

estimated at 9.81ms•-1 and is the flight time.

2.4 Procedures

Preliminary Assessments and Familiarization:

Subjects’ body height and weight were measured

after the briefing and their informed consent form

were collected. Subjects were then showed the

counter movement vertical jump technique, followed

by several trials of the jump by each of the subject on

the force plate. Improper technique was corrected and

the subjects performed several more trials until the

researcher was satisfied with the jump technique.

Verification of menstrual cycle phase: Menstrual

phases of each subject was verified using blood

samples to determine the level of estrogen,

progesterone, LH and FSH based on method by

(Kleiblova, et.al, 2006) along with basal body

temperature (BBT) charts (Guermandi, et.al, 2001).

2.4.1 Method

Counter movement vertical jump technique: The

counter movement vertical jump ready position was

standardized with subjects standing with the feet

approximately shoulder width apart and hands on

their hips. The jumps began with the subjects lowered

down their buttock, bend their knees to quarter-squat

position, and later immediately straighten the knee

with feet pushing the ground for their take-off. The

subjects were then considered had completed one

repetition of the jump when they landed with their

The Effect of Menstrual Cycle Phases on Vertical Jump Kinematics and Kinetics in Elite Athletes

335

hands still on their hip within the force plate area with

the knee again bend during the landing to absorb

impact. The subjects made another jump straight-

away until desired repetitions were achieved.

Testing procedures: The subjects were tested

randomly at different phases of their menstrual cycle.

Method of assessment was replicated as previously

described (Hespanhol, et.al, 2006) with all subjects

tested at similar time of the day for each testing

occasion. During each testing, the subjects performed

4 series of 15 seconds vertical counter-movement

jump (CMJ). All subjects started their testing session

with a standardized general warm-up and practiced

jumping several times until they were comfortable

and consistent with it. The subjects performed 4 trials

x 15 seconds maximum effort counter movement

vertical jumps. The subjects were instructed to jump

as high as possible on each of the single repetition,

with 10 seconds rest periods were given between each

trial. Each testing session ended with cooling down

and stretching exercises.

2.5 Data Analysis

The force plate measures all dependent variables of

interest at a sampling frequency of 200 Hz. Variables

of interest include peak force (N), mean force (N),

peak power (W), mean power (W), jump height (m),

peak distance (m), min distance (m), peak velocity

(m.s-1), min Velocity (m.s-1), jump repetition,

impulse at 100 (ms), 200 (ms) and 300 (ms) were

calculated for each set of the jumps involved via the

BMS software data analysis program. The variables

of interest in this study have been proven to be stable

within and between sessions (i.e. typical CV < 5%

and ICC~0.95).

2.6 Statistical Analysis

All data from variables of interest during the three

phases of menstrual cycle were analyzed using a

general linear model one way repeated measure

(ANOVA). A one sample Kolomogorov Smirnov test

was utilized to determine the normal distribution of

all variable. In the cases where a Mauchly’s test of

sphericity assumption was violated, the Greenhouse-

Geisser value was utilized to determine significance.

Further analyses using paired sample t test were used

to identify relative changes between menses versus

luteal phase and follicular phase versus menses. The

significance level of this study was set as p < 0.05.

3 RESULTS

3.1 Counter Movement Jump (CMJ)

Mean values (± SD) for thirteen selected kinematic

and kinetic components for CMJ performance during

different phases of the menstrual cycle are presented

in Table 1. Significant differences (p < 0.05) were

found in peak power, mean power and peak velocity

output between the three phases based on one way

repeated measure (ANOVA), while paired simple t

test indicated that the significant difference were

actually originated from the differences between

luteal phase and menses phase.

Table 1: Mean ± SD of counter movement jump performance during menstrual cycle phases. (Average of 4 trials x 15s counter

movement jump).

Variable (n=12)

Luteal Phase

Menses

Follicular Phase

P value

Mean ± SD

Peak Force (Newton)

1154.55 ± 114.79

1130.98 ± 130.20

1114.26 ± 102.08

0.4388

Mean Force (Newton)

863.41 ± 66.27

845.01 ± 69.12

841.10 ± 56.35

0.2027

Peak Power (Watts)

2880.88 ± 375.46

1952.30 ± 135.64

2069.25 ± 216.99

0.0304

Mean Power (Watts)

1087.24 ± 168.78

987.05 ± 91.81

1009.22 ± 98.37

0.0096

Jump Hight (m)

0.23 ± 0.02

0.22 ± 0.02

0.22 ± 0.03

0.0781

Peak Distance (m)

1.28 ± 1.55

0.50 ± 0.48

0.91 ± 0.87

0.1893

Min Distance (m)

0.14 ± 2.66

-1.38 ± 0.65

0.38 ± 0.82

0.2037

Peak Velocity (m.s

-1

)

2.39 ± 0.25

2.19. ± 0.14

2.31 ± 0.16

0.0160

Min Velocity (m.s

-1

)

-1.33 ± 0.25

-1.23 ± 0.37

-1.37 ± 0.19

0.4292

Jump Repetition

15.66 ± 0.9

15.62 ± 0.70

15.52 ± 1.3

0.7713

Impulse at 100 (ms)

95.92 ± 10.29

93.12 ± 9.20

92.08 ± 7.0

0.2200

Impulse at 200 (ms)

196.14 ± 21.98

191.02 ± 22.20

186.80 ± 21.31

0.2284

Impulse at 300 (ms)

285.96 ± 29.83

279.05 ± 29.13

273.62 ± 32.12

0.2378

*denotes significant difference between Luteal Phase vs Menses: p < 0.05

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3.2 Peak power (W)

The analysis of variance for the peak power (W) is

shown in Table 1. The peak power (W) varied

significantly between the phases in the menstrual

cycle [F (2, 11) = 4.112, p < 0.05]. Pairwise

comparison showed that relative peak power (W)

responses were affected during M -LP than FP –M.

3.3 Mean power (W)

The analysis of variance for the mean power (W) is

shown in Table 1. Mean power (W) was significantly

differed in three phases of menstrual cycle [F (2, 11)

= 5.784, p < 0.05]. Relative change of mean power

slightly decreased before menses (M – LP) compared

to after menses (FP – M).

3.4 Peak velocity (m.s-1)

The analysis of variance for the peak velocity (m.s-1)

is shown in Table 1. Peak velocity (m.s 1) was found

to be significantly differed between the phases of the

menstrual cycle [F (2, 11) = 5.020, p < 0.05]. Relative

change of peak velocity (m.s-1) was significantly

higher during LP – M then FP – M.

3.5 Estrogen / Progesterone Ratio

Mean values (± SD) of serum estrogen and

progesterone levels in the different phases of the

menstrual cycle for the 12 subjects are presented in

Table 2. Estrogen levels were low in the menses

phase and increased as expected in the luteal phase

and follicular phase. Progesterone levels increased in

the luteal phase compared to other phases.

Table 2: Mean values (± SD) of serum estrogen and

progesterone levels in the different phases of the menstrual

cycle.

Hormone

Luteal

phase

Menses

Follicular

phase

Estrogen

(pmol/I)

405.08 ±

232.27

158.58 ±

43.89

255.50 ±

118.08

Progesterone

(nmol/I)

3.86 ± 2.7

1.94 ± 0.5

2.46 ± 0.8

E/P Ratio

104.94

81.74

103.86

*denotes significant at luteal when compare with menses

with p < 0.05.

E=Estrogen; P= Progesterone.

3.6 Estrogen (pmol/I)

The estrogen level was significantly differed between

the phases of menstrual cycle, F (2, 22) = 7.246, p <

0.05].The estrogen level during luteal phase (405.08

± 232.27 pmol/I) was higher compared to menses

(158.58 ± 43.89 pmol/I) and follicular phase (255.50

± 118.08 pmol/I).

3.7 Progesterone (nmol/I)

The Progesterone level was significantly differed

between the phases of menstrual cycle, [F (2, 22) =

4.366, p < 0.05].The progesterone level during luteal

phase (3.86 ± 2.7 nmol/I) was higher compared to

menses (1.94 ± 0.5 nmol/I) and follicular phase (2.46

± 0.8 nmol/I).

4 DISCUSSION

The main aim of this study is to investigate how some

selected kinematics and kinetics were affected by

menstrual cycle phases, when performing acute

explosive anaerobic type activities such as the counter

movement jump among well trained elite athletes.

The most important finding is that significant

differences in peak power (W), mean power (W) and

peak velocity (m.s-1) between the three menstrual

cycle phases. Other variables measured such as peak

force (N), mean force (N), jump height (m), peak

distance (m), min distance (m), min velocity (m.s-1),

jump repetition, impulse at 100 (ms), impulse at 200

(ms) and impulse at 300 (ms) did not show any

difference during the menstrual cycle phases, which

confirmed what have been found by previous studies

(Friden, et.al, 2003).

Before further discussions are made on the key

findings of this study, several factors that might

influence the results obtained should also be noted.

First limiting factor that may affect the results of this

study is the timing of each testing with regards to the

day of the menstrual cycle phases. De Jonge (2003),

recommended that testing should be conducted on the

same day (i.e., 3rd day of LP, M and FP). However in

our study it was difficult to gather the subjects to be

tested on similar timing each of their menstrual cycle

phases. Thus, this might have some minor impact on

the results obtained, due to fluctuations in hormone

levels within each day of the menstrual phases

(Bambaeichi, et.al, 2004).). Although it was difficult

to gather elite athletes at one specific menses timing,

all subjects were tested at similar time of the day, to

The Effect of Menstrual Cycle Phases on Vertical Jump Kinematics and Kinetics in Elite Athletes

337

ensure minimal differences in the circadian

variations.

The second factor is the pulsatile secretion of

estrogen and progesterone. In order to minimize

inaccuracy that might be caused by higher secretion

due to exercise or time of the day, all subjects were

tested within the same time of the day as indicated

earlier. All testing’s were conducted at rest condition.

It has been reported that while the level of estrogen

might be similar between subjects, the progesterone

level might fluctuate and vary between subjects, and

thus may influence the physical exercise performance

(Bunt, 1990; de Jonge, 2003). Based on observation

made on both hormones secreted in this study (Table

2), fluctuations on the estrogen and progesterone ratio

during each testing period existed. Therefore this

result suggested that the changes in female steroid

hormones during the menstrual cycle may affect the

mechanical properties of human muscle and tendon.

A previous study had also found that muscle fiber

recruitment / motor unit activations were negatively

affected across menstrual cycle phase (Bambaeichi,

et.al, 2004).

The main findings of this study were reduction in

peak power, mean power and peak velocity during the

menses phase, and these findings are in agreement

with a number of previous studies (Friden, et.al, 2003;

Nicolay, et. al, 2007; Wojtys, et.al, 1998). However,

none of these cited studies used well-trained high

performance athletes as subjects. Thus, the present

study has shown that the well trained athletes also

reacted similarly as the untrained subjects in this

matter. Training status has previously been shown to

have an impact on power production ability and

utilization of muscle activities during explosive or

non-explosive anaerobic type of exercise or

movement (Pick & Becque, 2000) but this might

exclude female athletes with menses, in which their

training status might not made them ‘immune’

towards the effect of menstrual cycle on performance.

It could be suggested that, during training or

competition, athletes with menses should shift their

game play from relying more on power based

movement into skills or movement that requires less

of this, in order to maintain their typical performance.

This kind of change of strategy or skills used might

minimize the negative effect assaulted with menstrual

cycle experienced by the trained athletes. However,

this is far from definite and further studies are on the

way to elucidate this.

Soares, et.al, (2011) suggested that the behaviour

of the muscles in women presents different

characteristics during different phases of the

menstrual cycle, in particular, at the end of the luteal

phase. Findings of their study also supported what

have been found previously, that different

neuromuscular patterns were utilized when

performing jump sequence during different phase of

menses, as luteal phase has higher estrogen level

compared to during early follicular phase, which has

lower level of estrogen (Dedrick, et.al, 2008). Our

results also suggested that estrogen and progesterone

levels decreased during the menses phase in which

the reduction in peak power, mean power, and peak

velocity were observed.

Another explanation that may be considered for

the reduction in peak power, mean power and peak

velocity is pre-menstrual syndrome (PMS). PMS is

characterized by cyclical physical and mood

disturbance during the luteal phase, where severity of

the symptoms (i.e., pain) gradually increases during

the luteal phase and disappears a few days after onset

of menses (Friden, et.al, 2003). Giacomoni, et.al,

(2000) proposed that although there were no

significant differences in maximal anaerobic

performance during different menstrual cycle phases,

results of their study suggested that the presence or

absence of premenstrual or menstrual syndrome

symptoms may have an effect, possibly through an

action on the stretch shortening cycle of tendons and

ligaments. Research has provided strong evidence

that PMS symptoms are the result of an abnormal

response to normal levels of estrogen and

progesterone (Schmidt, et.al, 1998).

4.1 Practical Applications

Results of this study indicate the need of some

considerations to be taken when managing strength

and power training for female elite athletes especially

during their menses. While the findings of this study

is far from definite, coaches and athletes alike should

take into consideration to properly monitor female

elite athletes that need to perform explosive power

type of movement during training and competition.

Changes of strategies especially in sports with

explosive type of movement might be required in

order to ensure continuity of desirable peak

performance during competition. Training sessions

with an emphasis and goal on peak power output

should be adjourned to another day to ensure

maximum adaptations can take place longitudinally.

A proper monitoring system for female athletes

menstrual cycle process should also be a part of

conditioning training plans, should include both

performance related reasons and injury preventions.

However, the results obtained in this study still need

to be investigated further, especially by performing

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longitudinal research and taking into accounts other

factors involved such as muscle activation, firing rate

and many more before firm conclusion can be

elucidated.

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