Ergogenic Effects of Pop Music on Endurance Performance in Hot

Conditions among Physically Active Individuals

Eng Hoe Wee, Xiao Ying Lai and Hui Yin Ler

Tunku Abdul Rahman University College, Jalan Genting Kelang, 53300 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Keywords: Music, Endurance Performance, Ergogenic Effects, Hot Condition.

Abstract: Music has been reported by numerous researchers to elicit psychological, psychophysical, and ergogenic

effects. Some researchers found that music could improve endurance performance, others reported

progressive impairment in endurance performance with increasing ambient temperature. The purpose of this

study was to determine the effects of pop music on endurance performance in hot conditions (35°C) among

physically active individuals. Twenty-eight physically active subjects (14 males, 14 females, age=19.57±1.7

yrs, height= 164.8±8.3 cm, weight= 58.6±8.8 kg, VO2max = 42.5±7.7 ml.kg

-1

.min

-1

) were recruited to

participate in this randomized cross-over study: with music (WM) and no music (NM) trials. For each trial,

subjects cycled at 60 rpm for the first 20 minutes followed by maximal cycling effort in the last 20 minutes

to determine the distance achieved. The workload of 40 minutes exercise were maintained at 55% Pmax.

Heart rate (HR), oxygen uptake (VO2) and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) were recorded throughout the

experimental trials. Experimental trials were separated by at least 5 days apart. Results revealed that there

was no significant interaction between music and cycled distance [F(1, 26) = 1.372, p=0.252, ηp2=0.050].

Results also revealed that similar physiological responses (HR and VO2) and RPE were found in both WM

and NM trials. In conclusion, there is no sufficient evidence to support that pop music could enhance

endurance performance in the heat among physically active individuals.

1 INTRODUCTION

Numerous researchers studied the ergogenic aids of

music on sport performance. They reported that

music helps increased arousal, increased power

output and heart rate, delayed fatigue, and increased

exercise duration and intensity (Foster, 2010;

Karageorghis et al, 2009).

Varied results had been obtained on the effects of

music on sport performance. Atan (2013) found no

significant differences between type of music (slow

music, fast music and no music) in anaerobic power

assessments, heart rate (HR) or blood lactate.

Beaumont et al. (2014) studied music tempo on

cycling performance and revealed that fast music and

slow music had the higher average distance cycled as

compared to no music. Average HR was higher in no

music condition as compared to fast music condition

and RPE was higher in fast music condition as

compared to no music. Elisa et al. (2017) found music

at high volume did not improve physical

performance. While others (e.g. Waterhouse and

Edwards, 2009) found faster music enabled exercise

to be performed at a bigger work rate and with a

greater physiological effect and more positive

subjective responses, than did slower music.

Bigliassi et al. (2012) revealed that regardless of

the time of application (i.e., before or during

exercise), music did not affect performance and

psychophysiological parameters during the 5-km

time-trial cycling. Dyer and McKune (2013) in a

study of the effects of fast-tempo (140 bpm),

medium-tempo (120 bpm), slow-tempo (100 bpm),

and no music on well-trained cyclists, results

indicated no significant changes in performance,

physiological, or psychophysical variables. Hagen et

al. (2012) found no effect of music on 10-km cycle

time-trial performance; there were no statistically

significant differences in performance time or

physiological or psychological markers related to

music.

Another effect of listening to music is

physiological (HR, systolic and diastolic blood

pressure). Edworthy and Waring (2006) found a

significant increase in HR while listening to fast

music during exercise. Birnbaum et al. (2009)

Wee, E., Lai, X. and Ler, H.

Ergogenic Effects of Pop Music on Endurance Performance in Hot Conditions among Physically Active Individuals.

DOI: 10.5220/0006887000910097

In Proceedings of the 6th International Congress on Sport Sciences Research and Technology Support (icSPORTS 2018), pages 91-97

ISBN: 978-989-758-325-4

reported that listening to fast music decreased the

subjects’ HR and blood pressure during steady state

treadmill exercise. Conversely, Atan (2013) and

Schwartz et al. (1990) examined effects of fast music

tempo on HR and found no significant changes.

Exercise in hot conditions causes heat stress

which can be detrimental to sporting performance.

However numerous studies had reported the

mediating effects of music on sport performance in

hot conditions. In a Malaysian study (Nikol et al.,

2018) of running time-to-exhaustion for 12 runners

during the synchronous music and no music

conditions, it was reported that participants ran

signiﬁcantly run longer before reaching exhaustion

while listening to synchronous music compared to

the no music condition with a main gain of 151s. On

the contrary, Tatterson et al. (2000) found in a study

comparing the performance of trained cyclist in a 30-

min time-trial, with (32°C) and without (23°C) heat

stress, reported 6.5% reduced power output.

Due to inconclusive and controversial results

from previous research, this study proposed to

investigate the effects of pop music on cycling

performance in hot conditions.

2 METHOD

2.1 Participants

Twenty-eight physically active individuals (14 males,

14 females, age = 19.57±1.7 yrs, height = 164.8±8.3

cm, weight= 58.6±8.8 kg, VO2max = 42.5±7.7 ml.kg

.min

-1

) volunteered for this study (Table 1). All

subjects were of good health and free of any chronic

health conditions through the scrutiny of Medical

Health History. They were chosen based on ACSM’s

(2014) criteria that they performed at least 30 minutes

of moderate-intensity physical activity five days per

week or 20 minutes of more vigorous activity three

days per week.

Table 1: Participants characteristics and VO

2max

parameters

(mean ± SD).

Prior to the participation, the participants

completed the Physical Activity Readiness

Questionnaire (PAR-Q), to rule out contraindications

to participation. The approval to conduct this research

was approved by the University College Ethics

Committee. In conforming to the principles of the

declaration of Helsinki of the World Medical

Association, participants were briefed on the

methods, procedures, benefits and potential risk

before signing the written consent.

2.2 Research Design

This study applied a crossover randomized

experimental design which consisted of two

experimental conditions, to test the effects of ‘With

Music’ (WM) and ‘No Music’ (NM) on endurance

cycling performance in hot conditions. After the

preliminary testing, each subject was required to

undergo two randomized-separate experimental

trials. The two experimental trials were NM in the

Hot Condition (35°C) and WM in Hot Condition

(35°C).

2.3 Music Selection

Based on the recommendation of Lopes-Silva et al

(2015) and Karageorghis et al. (1999), pop and rock

music tracks were selected for the music condition.

Fifteen pieces of pop and rock music tracks were

selected and in their original form, the tracks were

played in the tempo range of 78-144 bpm. However,

in order to control music tempo, the tempo of the

music tracks was standardized at 150 bpm. using a

computer software package (Virtual DJ v. 8; Atomic

Productions, Paris, France) as suggested by

Karageorghis et al. (2010). The subjects with music

condition listened to the music at 150 bpm through

headphones connected to a portable MP3 player set at

approximately 80 decibels as proposed by Edworthy

and Waring (2006). Each track lasted approximately

4 minutes and the track sequence was applied during

all the music conditions.

2.4 Procedure

Procedure consisted of two phases (a) Familiarization

and Preliminary Testing, (b) Experimental Trials. The

research design consisted of experimental conditions.

Each subject was tested two times under the same

laboratory conditions in a randomized manner.

Condition 1 (NM) consisted of performing warm-up

and cycling exercise without music. For condition 2

(WM) the athletes listened to music during warm-up

and while performing cycling exercise.

icSPORTS 2018 - 6th International Congress on Sport Sciences Research and Technology Support

2.4.1 Familiarization and Preliminary

Testing

The first phase of the research involved the Maximal

Oxygen Uptake (VO

2max

) Test. Upon the arrival of

each subject, subject’s height and weight were

measured. After which the subject was fitted onto the

cycle ergometer (Corival, Lode) and the saddle height

and reach length were measured and recorded for

subsequent experimental trials and profiling

purposes. Once the subject settled in, heart rate (HR)

and resting blood pressure (BP) were measured using

a heart rate monitor (FT4M, POLAR, Australia) and

a blood pressure monitor (Omron 1 A2, OMRON,

Japan). When the subject was sufficiently rested and

ready, the Portable Metabolic System (K4 b2,

Cosmed, Italy) was fitted. The Modified Astrand

Maximal Cycle Protocol was used in this VO

2max

test.

Submaximal oxygen uptake test was performed

before the VO

2max

test. The initial workload was 25

watts for female and 30 watts for male (Pollock et al.,

1987). Subjects were instructed to maintain 60 rpm in

every load. After 4 minutes at this initial workload,

the workload was increased in increments of 25 watts

for female and 30 watts for male. The submaximal

test ended after 4 stages of increments. Subjects were

instructed to sit and rest until they recovered to resting

heart rate. After that, subjects started on the VO

2max

test by a load that was achieved by the subject’s when

his/her HR was at 130+/-bpm in the previous

submaximal test. Subjects’ load was added 25 watts

for female and 30watts for male every 2 minutes. The

test continued until the participant was exhausted or

was no longer maintaining the pedalling frequency of

55 rpm. The data from the submaximal and VO

2max

test were used to determine the 55% P

max

for the

experimental trials.

2.4.2 Experimental Trials

Subjects were required to complete 2 experimental

trials that were conducted each week in the sports and

exercise science laboratory. All subjects were

involved in both conditions of WM in Hot Condition

(35⁰ C) and NM in Hot Condition (35⁰ C). Humidity

for both conditions were maintained at 55-65%.

After arriving at the laboratory for the

experimental trials, subjects rested for 10 minutes,

after which RHR was measured using a HR monitor.

Before the experimental trial started, the subject was

fitted with the portable metabolic system and all the

required ancillary instruments as mentioned in the

preliminary testing. In the music conditions, a

portable MP3 player was turned on after warm-up. In

the non-music conditions, headphones were

connected, but the portable MP3 player remained off

during the entire test.

Each experimental trial consisted of 40 minutes

55% of P

max

cycling which the subjects maintained 60

rpm for the first 20 minutes and followed by cycling

as fast as possible in the last 20 minutes to determine

the distance completion. Prior to each experimental

trial, subjects warmed up for 5 minutes on the cycle

ergometer at 60 rpm without resistance. HR, VO

2max

RPE were measured at intervals of 5 minutes during

the experimental trials and distance of completion for

the last 20 minutes were recorded. The experimental

trials were separated by at least 5 days to ensure full

recovery from previous experimental trial.

2.5 Statistical Analysis

The statistical software package “SPSS Statistics

23.0” (IBM) was used for statistical analysis. Mean

value and standard deviation for the research

parameters were calculated. T-tests were used for

comparative analyses. Two way Repeated Measures

ANOVA was used to examine the differences across

the VO

HR, distance and RPE for both trials. When

significant interaction was obtained, pair-sampled t-

test was used to identify differences between mean

scores. The level of significance was set at p < 0.05.

3 RESULTS

The Two-way repeated-measures ANOVA (minutes

20 through 40) showed there was a significant

interaction between music and HR [F(1,26) = 76.698,

p<0.001, ηp

=0.754]. HR responses were higher in

NW trial as compared to WM trial but statistically not

significant (p>0.05). The HR values from 0 to 40

minute values are displayed in Figure 1.

Figure 1: HR Responses during WM and NM Trials.

Ergogenic Effects of Pop Music on Endurance Performance in Hot Conditions among Physically Active Individuals

The Two-way repeated-measures ANOVA

(minutes 20 through 40) showed there was a

significant interaction between trials and VO

[F(1,26) = 104.836, p <0.001, ηp

=0.801] as NM trial

displayed an increase in VO

2max

values over time

greater than WM trial. VO

in NM trial was

significantly higher than WM trial at 20 min and at 40

min (p=0.041, p=0.016) respectively (Figure 2).

Figure 2: VO

responses during WM and NM Trials.

The Two-way repeated-measures ANOVA

showed that there was no significant interaction

between music and cycled distance [F(1,26) = 1.372,

p = 0.252, ηp

=0.05]. Subjects cycled the similar

distance during both experimental trials. Maximum

effort cycled distance in 20 to 40 minute values are

displayed in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Cycled distance during WM and NM Trials.

Similarly result was obtained in examining

interaction between music and RPE. The Two-way

repeated-measures ANOVA revealed no significant

interaction between music and RPE [F(1,26) =

20.406, p>0.05, ηp

=0.440]. Subjects of NM trials

perceived exercise to be harder as compared to the

perception of WM trials. However, the difference in

perceptions in the two trials was not statistically

significant (p<0.05). RPE values of 0 through 40

minutes are displayed in Figure 4.

Figure 4: RPE measures during WM and NM Trials.

4 DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects

of music on endurance performance in physically

active individuals in hot condition (35°).

4.1 Effects of Music on Endurance

Performance

The Two-way repeated-measures ANOVA showed

there was no significant interaction between music

and cycled distance [F(1, 26) = 1.372, p=0.252,

ηp2=0.050]. Subjects cycled the similar distance

during both experimental trials.

Similar performance in the NM condition can be

explained by Lima-Silva et al. (2012) and Tenenbaum

et al. (2004). They reported that listening to music did

not delay fatigue on exercise performance. Similarly,

the result of this research is supported by Nakamura

et al., (2010) who found that total distance covered

during constant-load exercise performed at critical

power (207 ± 53 W) was not increased compared to

the control group, irrespective of listening to

preferred or non-preferred music. In contrast, there

was a study done by Atkinson et al. (2004), when

athletes listened to music, there was an improvement

in performance during a 10km cycling time trial

compared to no music.

According to Nakamura (2010), differences in the

findings may be due to the methodological issues

such as the differences in exercise protocols and other

aspects of age, music tempo, musical preference and

socio-cultural influences.

icSPORTS 2018 - 6th International Congress on Sport Sciences Research and Technology Support

4.2 Effects of Music on HR

The Two-way repeated-measures ANOVA (minutes

20 through 40) showed there is a significant

interaction between music and HR [F(1,26) = 76.698,

p=0.<0.001, ηp2=0.754] as NM condition displayed

an increase in HR values over time greater than WM

condition. HR responses were higher in NW trial as

compared to WM trial but statistically not significant

(p>0.05).

The result of this study differed from the findings

of Hagen et al. (2013). In conducting a 10-km cycle

time trial with music as ergogenic aids, Hagen et al.

found that HR were not significant different between

the music and no-music trials. The result of this study

was also in contrast to the study by Nethery (2002)

and Lopes-Silva et al. (2015) where no significant

difference in HR was found between the session with

music and without music.

Similarly Potteiger et al. (2000) reported during

20 min. of moderate intensity exercise the under

varied conditions of fast upbeat music, classical

music, self-selected music, and no music

that decrement in HR occurred in all conditions

except the NM condition.

The HR responses of WM condition were slightly

lower over time than NM trials but not significant.

This is a common notion that music serves as a

distraction from the exercise itself, and other

investigators have reported an increase in HR and

blood pressure due to stimulation of the sympathetic

nervous system when listening to music while

exercising (Birnbaum et al., 2009; Mitchell and

Wolffe, 1990; William and Michael, 1989;

Yamashita et al., 2006).

In supporting the findings of this study, Edworthy

and Waring (2006) and Thornby, Haas & Axen

(1995) revealed a significant increase in HR when

their subjects listened to fast music while exercising.

However, their studies used different exercise

protocols and different music selection processes,

which may account for the contradictory findings.

The discrepancy between our findings and previous

studies could be differences in exercise type (circuit

type resistance exercise versus treadmill or cycle),

duration, training status of the subjects, and the music

selection process (fast versus medium or low tempo).

4.3 Effects of Music on VO

2max

The Two-way repeated-measures ANOVA (minutes

20 through 40) showed there was a significant

interaction between trials and VO2 [F(1,26) =

104.836, p<0.001, ηp2=0.801] as NM trial displayed

greater VO2 values over time than WM condition.

VO2 in NM trial were significantly higher than WM

trial at 20 min and at 40 min (p=0.041, p=0.016,

respectively).

There was a 2.97% of decrement in VO

2max

mean

scores during WM Trial compared to the VO

2max

mean scores during NM Trial. The reduction of

2max

is supported by Bacon, Myers &

Karageorghis (2012) who stated that VO

2max

was

lower in synchronous music compared to the slow

tempo asynchronous condition. According to Nomura

et al. (2006), a reduced of VO

2max

was because of the

cycling pedal revolution rate was synchronized with

music. Cycling pedal revolution rate synchronized

with music could enhanced coupling between the

regular muscular contractions of cycling and HR

which would improve the metabolic efficiency.

The HR response in WM trial (Figure 1) showed

the HR mean score was between 137-154 bpm after

20 minutes. This showed that music enhanced

coupling between the regular muscular contractions

of cycling and HR. Besides, Szabo, Small & Leigh

(2012) was also stated that there was an improvement

in metabolic efficiency when fast tempo music was

used during incremental exercise.

The increasing VO

2max

over time of 20 to 40

minutes

WM group of this study did not paralleled

the findings of Szmedra and Bacharach (1998).

Szmedra and Bacharach found VO

2max

lower in WM

trial because of a relaxing effect that music had on the

participants and it led to reducing muscle tension and

lessening the narrowing of blood vessels. This

condition had improved blood flow to the working

muscle and helped in cleaning up plasma lactate and

decreasing the production of plasma lactate which

may involve in muscle fatigue (Thomas et al., 2004).

4.4 Effects of Music on RPE

The Two-way repeated-measures ANOVA revealed

no significant interaction between music and RPE

[F(1,26) = 20.406, p>0.05, ηp

=0.440]. Subjects of

NM trials perceived exercise to be harder as

compared to the perception of WM trials.

The increase in RPE in WM condition of this

study is inconsistent with those of previous studies

that reported reduced RPE while listening to music.

Nethery et al. (1991), Potteiger et al. (2000), Nethery

(2002), Yamashita et al. (2006), and Dyer and

McKune (2013) reported a decrease in RPE when

listening to music while exercising. Similarly, many

other researchers (Birnbaum et al., 2009; Caria et al.,

2007, Schwartz et al., 1990) found that listening to

music had no affected any changes in RPE.

Ergogenic Effects of Pop Music on Endurance Performance in Hot Conditions among Physically Active Individuals

However, since this study involved WM subjects

cycling at 55% of VO

2max,

the increase in RPE in WM

condition seemed to be supported by Lopes-Silva et

al. (2014) that music could influence the RPE only at

low-to-moderate exercise intensity (<80% VO

2max

This was due to the fact that external stimuli such as

music would be able to compete against weaker

internal cues for attentional focus. Similarly, Bigliassi

et al. (2012) emphasised that low intensity exercise

would enhance the brain’s capability to shift its

attention from the exercise from load to external

stimuli, leading to a reduction in the rate of RPE. In

addition, in a study on the effects of known and

unknown exercise duration on RPE by Coquart et al.

(2008), it was reported that RPE was lower when the

total duration was unknown beforehand. The subjects

of WM in this study had knowledge of exercise

duration, thus external stimuli (music) could not help

subjects overcame attentional focus. This has helped

increase RPE in WM subjects. This increments in

RPE in this study is supported by Bwonley et al.,

(1995), that trained participants had higher post-

exhaustive RPE compared to untrained participants.

Pires et al. (2011) explained that the long exercise

duration (<80% VO

2max)

such as exercise duration in

this study, could affect the peripheral signals to

contribute substantially to generate RPE.

5 CONCLUSION

The results of this study revealed that pop music has

no effect on cycling performance in the heat among

physically active individuals. One possible reason

had to be the choice of music. Preferred music could

motivate and improve physical performance

(Karageorghis et al., 2011, Karageorghis et al., 2006),

influenced perceived exertion (Nakamura et al.,

2010). Thus it is suggested that more investigation on

the effects of type of music and music preference on

endurance performance in the hot conditions would

be investigated.

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