The Effect of Own-Source Revenue, Population, and Population
Density on the Capital Expenditure of City and District Governments
on Java Island
Dimas Swara Dwipa Sumarsono and Sri Ningsih
Department of Accounting, Faculty of Economics and Business, Universitas Airlangga, Indonesia
Keywords: Capital Expenditure, Own-Source Revenue, Population, Population Density.
Abstract: This study aims to describe and analyze the effects of own-source revenue, population, and population
density on the capital expenditure of city and district governments on Java Island. Population for this study
are119 city and district governments in Java. The final samples consist of112 city and district governments.
Hypotheses were tested using panel data regression. The results of this research are: (1) own-source revenue
has a positive effect on capital expenditure; (2) population has a negative effect on capital expenditure; (3)
population density has no effect on capital expenditure.
1 INTRODUCTION
According to Article 167 Indonesian Law no. 33 of
2004 about Financial Balance between Central and
Local Government, regional expenditure should be
prioritized in order to protect and improve the
quality of societies’ standard of living. This
objective can be achieved by means of various
improvements to basic services, such as improving
the quality of education and healthcare, building
public infrastructure, and improving social security
for the community.
Capital expenditure is an important part of
improving public services through the improvement
of facilities and infrastructure such as roads,
equipment, and buildings. Good infrastructure and
facilities will facilitate and accelerate the
performance of local governments in providing
services to the community. Unfortunately, according
to audit results of Indonesian Audit Board (BPK),
the Local Government Financial Report in the first
semester of 2016 show that the problem of
noncompliance resulting in regional losses
caused2,407 problems to occur in 506 separate local
governments. In general, the findings show that
regional losses occur due to weaknesses in the
management of capital expenditure accounts, goods
and services spending and personnel expenditure.
In order to allocate optimum capital expenditure,
local governments should optimize their local
revenue. Regional revenue is ma de up of Own-
Source Revenue, Transfer Income, and other Legal
Revenue. The main source of revenue that
determines a local government’s level of
independence in term of Budget is the Own-Source
Revenue (PAD). According to Law no. 33 of 2004,
PAD is a source of revenue generated from the local
area to be used as a basis of capital for local
government for financing development and regional
businesses, in order to minimize dependence on
funds from the central government.
The high value of PAD cannot be separated from
the contribution of the people who pay taxes to the
local government. An explanatory passage from Law
No. 33 of 2004 states that the population can be used
to measure the need for funding in order to carry out
the function of basic public service. According to
Devita et al. (2014), local government planners see
the total population as both the basic capital for
development and a burden for local governments.
Large populations can be a good source of basic
capital development if they have good skills and
high quality that could have a positive impact on
production. However, large populations can become
a burden if the distribution and quality is uneven,
resulting in high demand for social services along
with low production levels.
Based on Population Projection for 2010-2035
issued by Indonesian Central Bureau of Statistics
(BPS), the Indonesian population has increased over
Sumarsono, D. and Ningsih, S.
The Effect of Own-Source Revenue, Population, and Population Density on the Capital Expenditure of City and District Governments on Java Island.
In Proceedings of the Journal of Contemporary Accounting and Economics Symposium 2018 on Special Session for Indonesian Study (JCAE 2018) - Contemporary Accounting Studies in
Indonesia, pages 143-149
ISBN: 978-989-758-339-1
Copyright © 2018 by SCITEPRESS – Science and Technology Publications, Lda. All rights reserved
143

the past five years. In 2011 the total population of
Indonesia reached 241.99 million people and
continued to increase to 255.46 million people in
2015. Increased population will cause the emergence
of various problems in the field of population. One
of these is the problem of uneven population spread
resulting in an increasing population density.
Referring to Central Bureau of Statistics data, most
of Indonesia's population (about 57 percent) is
located on the island of Java, while the rest are
distributed outside of Java. In 2015,the population
density of Indonesia as a whole reached 134 people
per km
2
.In Java, however, the population density
reached 1,121 people per km
2
;meanwhile, the
population density outside of Java Island is under
120 people per km
2
, decreasing to as low as 14
people per km
2
in Maluku and Papua. Increased
population also causes there to be more and more
things to consider when making policies related to
the provision of various facilities and infrastructure,
or public facilities to ensure the welfare of the
population is guaranteed.
High population numbers also lead to high levels
of population density. According to Huda (2015),
the population density describes the ratio of
population to the area. Population density often
causes problems in spatial planning due to the large
population pressure on the land (Setyorini, 2012).
Increasing numbers of urban residents lead to high
provision of living necessities; this includes physical
needs, such as housing, facilities and infrastructure,
as well as non-physical needs, such as education and
economic factors. It is therefore necessary to devise
the right treatment to manage population and
population density in order to avoid a range of
problems.
This study aims to analyze the factors affecting
capital expenditures, taking both financial and non-
financial factors into account. The financial factor to
be studied is PAD, because PAD is the main source
of revenue, which is also an indicator for the
independence of local government. Non-financial
factors included are population and population
density, because any increase in population has the
consequence of increasing the need for public
facilities and infrastructure.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW AND
HYPOTHESES
2.1 Stakeholder Theory
Stakeholders are various parties who are jointly or
partially related to, or have an interest in an entity.
The various parties may consist of publics in
general, communities, groups, and individuals.
Various parties can be considered stakeholders if the
party in question has interests, legitimacy, or power
over the entity (Budimanta et al., 2008).
Stakeholder theory describes that an entity must
be able to provide benefits for the various parties
that have links with the entity, not only perform
activities in the interests of the entity
itself(Lindawati and Marsella, 2015). According to
Ghozali and Chariri (2007: 409), the existence and
sustainability of an entity is strongly influenced by
the support provided by stakeholders to the entity.
Stakeholder theory applies not only to private
companies but also to the public sector, especially
government. The government as an entity must be
able to provide good services to the community and
improve the quality and level of community welfare.
According to Handayani (2012), the public is mainly
concerned with how their government manages their
money and funding. The government is required to
practice good and clean financial governance, which
enables them to maintain the trust of the
people/society and achieve the government's goal of
improving the welfare of the community, as they are
the main stakeholder of the government entity.
2.2 Theory of Government Spending
Mangkoesubroto (2008: 169) states that the policies
carried out by the government require government
expenditure. If the government has established a
policy to make purchases of goods or services, for
example, then government spending is the cost to
implement the policies that have been set. There are
three groups of theories put forward by economists
regarding the development of government in macro
theory, namely:
1. Rostow Theory
Rostow's theory explains the relationship
between the stage of economic development and
the development of government spending. In the
early stages of economic development, the
percentage of government investment to total
investment is large, because it is at this stage that
the government must provide infrastructure. In
JCAE Symposium 2018 – Journal of Contemporary Accounting and Economics Symposium 2018 on Special Session for Indonesian Study
144

the intermediate stages, government investment
is still needed to avoid market failures caused by
increasing private investment. At a further
economic level, government activity shifts to the
form of expenditure on social activities
(Mangkoesoebroto, 2008: 170).
2. Wagner Theory
The theory put forward by Wagner explains that
government spending will increase as per-capita
income increases in an economy. According to
Sanggelorang et al. (2015), this theory
emphasizes the development of an increasing
percentage of government spending on the Gross
National Product (GNP). Wagner’s theory states
that the government is required to be able to
regulate the relationships that arise in society,
education, law and so on, which leads to a
greater role being played by government
(Mangkoesubroto, 2008: 179).
3. Theory of Peacock and Wiseman
The Peacock and Wiseman theory outlines the
basic view that governments will always try to
increase spending, while people generally do not
like to pay bigger taxes to finance the growing
government spending. Peacock and Wiseman
explain that collection of taxes from society will
increase due to economic development even if
there is no change in tax rates. An increase in tax
revenues will thus lead to an increase in
government spending. This theory also contends
that an increase in GNP leads to an increase in
government revenues, which has an impact on
increasing government spending
(Mangkoesoebroto, 2008: 173).
2.3 Development of Hypotheses
Based on the theory of government spending that
states the government will increase spending, or
expenditure, in line with increased revenue or
income. PAD is derived from direct contributions
from the public, such as taxes and charges. PAD is a
very important component of local revenue to
support development in the regions. PAD is used as
capital for local expenditure funding, and is also an
indicator for measuring the region’s success inbeing
an independent region in accordance with the
concept of decentralization. Accordingly, the higher
PAD should be followed by higher capital
expenditure. Purbarini and Gregorius (2015)and
Sholikhah and Wahyudin (2014) show that PAD has
a positive and significant impact on capital
expenditure. The relationship between PAD and
capital expenditure can be hypothesized as follows:
H
1
: PAD has a positive effect on Capital
Expenditure.
Law no. 33 of 2004 states that one indicator of
government fiscal financing is population. As
explained by the theory of government spending,
taxes derived from the population also have a
contribution to government spending as it is one of
the main sources of income for the government. A
large number of people in a region should be utilized
by the local government to obtain more optimal tax
revenue, which will therefore have an impact on
optimal spending as well. On the other hand, any
increase in population has the consequence of
increasing the need for public facilities and
infrastructure. Shelton (2007)states that increased
population has a positive influence on all local
government spending. Ayodele (2014)further argues
that increased population has a positive influence on
all government spending. The relationship between
population size and capital expenditure can be
hypothesized as follows:
H
2
: Number (i.e. size) of Population has a
positive effect on Capital Expenditure.
Population density often creates problems in
spatial planning due to the resulting large population
pressure on the land. More densely populated areas
require more infrastructure when compared to areas
with lower population density. Based on stakeholder
theory, the government should be able to provide
good services for the community to improve that
community’s welfare. The higher the population
density, the more infrastructure will be needed.
Nurlis (2016) states that there is a significant
positive influence of population density on capital
expenditure allocation. Holcombe and De Edgra
(2008) argue that a relatively high population
density has an influence on local government
spending. The relationship between population
density and capital expenditure can be hypothesized
as follows:
H
3
: Population Density has a positive effect on
Capital Expenditure.
3 METHOD AND ANALYSIS
3.1 Research Approach and Data
Source
This research uses a quantitative approach with an
explanatory method (Hasan, 2002). The author uses
an explanatory method to explain the relationship
between variables in order to provide specific
The Effect of Own-Source Revenue, Population, and Population Density on the Capital Expenditure of City and District Governments on
Java Island
145

information about the effects of PAD, population,
and population density on capital expenditure.
This study uses secondary data from the Budget
Realization Report published by the Director
General of Fiscal Balance through the official
website of Indonesia’s Directorate General of Fiscal
Balance (www.djpk.kemenkeu.go.id).Data on
population and population density, as published by
the Central Bureau of Statistics from every province
of Java, were obtained through the official website
of the Central Bureau of Statistics (BPS).
3.2 Operational Definition and
Variable Measurement
According to Indonesian Government Regulation
No. 71 of 2010 about Governmental Accounting
Standard, capital expenditure defined as local
government expenditures with benefits exceeding
one fiscal year and that will add regional assets or
wealth and subsequently increase routine
expenditures, such as maintenance costs, in public
administration expenditure groups. Capital
expenditures consist of Capital Expenditures of
Land, Capital Expenditures of Equipment and
Machinery, Capital Expenditure of Buildings and
Constructions, Capital Expenditures for Roads,
Irrigation and Networks, and Other Physical Capital
Expenditures. The unit measurement of capital
expenditure is rupiah. Capital Expenditure is
measured by the following formula:
Capital Expenditure = Land Capital Expenditure
+Equipment and Machinery Capital Expenditures
+Buildings and Constructions Capital Expenditure+
Roads, Irrigation and Other Capital Expenditure
+Other Physical Capital Expenditures (1)
According to Law no. 33 of 2004, Own-Source
Revenue (PAD) is a source of local revenue
generated from the local area to be used as a basis of
capital for local government for financing
development and regional businesses in order to
minimize dependence on funds from the central
government. PAD consists of local taxes, regional
levies, the result of separated regional wealth
management, and other legitimate regional revenue.
The unit measurement of PAD is rupiah. The Own-
Source Revenue measured by the following formula:
Own-Source Revenue = Local Taxes + Regional
Levies + result of separated regional wealth
management + other legitimate regional revenue (2)
According to the Central Bureau of Statistics, the
Population refers to the number of people domiciled
in the geographical area of the Republic of Indonesia
for 6 months or more, and/or those who are
domiciled for less than 6 months but have the
intention to settle. The unit measurement of
population is person. Population is measured using
the following formula:
Number of Population = Male Population + Female
Population (3)
According to the Central Bureau of Statistics,
Population Density refers to the number of
inhabitants for every square kilometer of area. The
unit measurement of population density is the person
per square kilometer. Population Density is
measured by the following formula:
Population Density = Number of Population/Area
(4)
3.3 Data Analysis Technique
The data for this study are secondary data derived
from the website of General Directorat of Fiscal
Balance (www.djpk.kemenkeu.go.i) and the website
of Central Bureau of Statistics, from 2011 to 2015.
This study uses panel data regression, a
regression that combines cross-section data and
time-series data (Ghozali, 2013). This research
analyzes the influence of three independent variables
(own-source revenue (PAD), population, and
population density) on Capital Expenditure, which is
the dependent variable.
According to Widarjono (2007), the panel data
regression method incorporates three kinds of
estimation model that can be used in regression
analysis: Common Effects Model (Pool Least
Square), Fix Effect Model (FEM), and Random
Effect Model (REM).
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Research Results
In choosing the most suitable model to use in this
study, several tests are required. A Chow test was
used to determine the more suitable choice between
FEM and PLS, a Hausman test used to choose the
most suitable option from REM and FEM, and an
LM Breusch-Pagan test used to determine which of
JCAE Symposium 2018 – Journal of Contemporary Accounting and Economics Symposium 2018 on Special Session for Indonesian Study
146

PLS and REM was more appropriate to use. All tests
were run using EVIEWS 9. The results of the Chow
test are presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Results of Chow Test.
Effects Test Prob.
Cross-section F 0.0000
The value used in the Chow test is the
probability value of the cross-section F. The
following hypotheses are used in the Chow test:
H0: using PLS
H1: using FEM
If the probability value of cross-section F does
not exceed the 5% significance level, then H1 is
accepted. Table 4.1 shows that the probability value
of cross-section F is 0.0000. Accordingly, the more
appropriate panel data model between FEM and PLS
is FEM.
After the Chow test provides the conclusion that
FEM should be selected, the next test is the
Hausman test, which selects the more suitable model
out of REM and FEM. The results of the Hausman
test are presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Results of Hausman Test.
Test Summary Prob.
Cross-section random 0.0000
The value used in Hausman test is the probability
value of the cross-section random. Here is the
hypothesis used in the Hausman test:
H0: using REM
H1: using FEM
If the probability value of cross-section random
does not exceed the 5% significance level, then H1
is accepted. Table 4.2 shows the probability value of
cross-section random is 0.0000. Accordingly, the
more appropriate panel data model between REM
and FEM is FEM. From both tests above, the most
appropriate model to use in this research is FEM.
Consequently, there is no longer any need to use the
Breusch - Pagan LM Test. The results of panel data
regression are presented in Table 3.
Table 3: Results of Panel Data Regression.
Independent
Variable
Dependent Variable: Capital Expenditures
Common
Effect
Fixed Effect Random Effect
Coef.
p-
valu
e
Coef.
p-
valu
e
Coef.
p-
valu
e
Constants
14110
09
0.44
96
2.14E
+08
0.00
00
15399
15
0.41
18
Own-Source
Revenue
0.372
715
0.91
14
40.45
916
0.00
00
0.668
52
0.83
96
Population
0.088
734
0.95
41
-
226.2
983
0.00
00
-
0.059
998
0.96
89
Population
Density
-
170.6
375
0.58
71
16502
.5
0.07
19
-
186.2
580
0.55
42
R-squared 0.00067 0.306443 0.000617
Adjusted R-
squared
-0.004722 0.128768 -0.004775
Prob. (F-Stat) 0.945769 0.000051 0.51619
Based on Table 3, using the Fixed Effect Model
(FEM), the hypothesis test is significant at 5%
confidence level (0.05). The value of the
determination coefficient (R
2
) is 0.3064, meaning
that 30.64 percent of variation in capital expenditure
was explained by PAD, population, and population
density. Own-Source Revenue (PAD) has a positive
and significant effect on capital expenditure (p
value0.0000; coefficient 40.46). Population has a
negative and significant effect on capital expenditure
(p value 0.0000; coefficient -226.29). Population
density has no effect on capital expenditure (p value
0.0719; coefficient 16502.5).
4.2 Discussion
The first hypothesis states that PAD has a positive
effect on capital expenditure. The results of the
statistical tests support this hypothesis, indicating
that the higher the PAD of city and district
governments on Java Island, the higher the capital
expenditure. The results of this study are consistent
The Effect of Own-Source Revenue, Population, and Population Density on the Capital Expenditure of City and District Governments on
Java Island
147

with the results of Purbarini and Gregorius (2015)
and also Sholikhah and Wahyudin (2014), which
found that PAD partially has a positive effect on
capital expenditure. This indicates that the higher
PAD received by the local government will have an
impact on the increase of the local government
capital expenditure.
The size of capital expenditure will be influenced
by the PAD received by the local government. This
is because the capability of capital expenditure in the
regions will always need to consider the source of
the local revenue and whether it will be sufficient to
spend in the region or not. A local government with
high PAD can contribute substantially to a region's
capital expenditure, such that development programs
designed by the government will be well
implemented due to good financial support from the
PAD. This is in line with the government
expenditure theory, which states that an increase of
government revenue will be in line with the increase
in government spending.
The second hypothesis states that population size
has a positive effect on capital expenditure.
However, the results of the statistical test do not
support the hypothesis; the results show that
population size has a negative effect on capital
expenditure. The results of this study thus contradict
Shelton's (2007) study from the United States, which
states that population size has a positive influence on
all local government spending, as well as Ayodele’s
(2014) research from Nigeria stating that population
size has a positive influence on all government
spending. The differences in these research results
may be caused by the different conditions between
local governments in the United States and Nigeria
and the conditions of local governments in
Indonesia.
The results of this study are aligned with the
results of Devita et al. (2014), which state that the
number of residents negatively affects the direct
spending of city government in Jambi province
where capital expenditure is part of direct spending.
Areas that have high populations are usually
identical with regencies and municipalities that have
better infrastructure when compared to areas with
relatively low population. Good infrastructure will
reduce capital expenditure, as capital expenditure is
in part expended to support infrastructure in an area.
The population in Java is relatively high compared
to other areas outside of Java. According to Devita
et al. (2014), the rising population actually reduces
capital expenditure because of the proportion of
income actually diverted to operational expenditure.
The third hypothesis states that population
density has a positive effect on capital expenditure.
However, the results of the statistical test differ from
the hypothesis and state that population density has
no effect on capital expenditure. The results of this
study contradict the results of research conducted by
Nurlis (2016), which found a positive relationship
between population density and the allocation of
capital expenditure. This result also does not support
the findings of Huda (2015), which state that
population density has a negative effect on the
allocation of capital expenditure. However, the
results of this study are in line with the research of
Aziz and Wulandari (2014), which state that
population density statistically has no significant
effect on capital expenditure.
The results of this study indicate that in
allocating capital expenditures, city/district
governments in Java do not consider population
density as a factor. According to Aziz and
Wulandari (2015), population density has no effect
on capital expenditure because of the unequal
distribution of population density with the fiscal
capacity of the local government’s finances. In
addition, it is possible that there were other
programs that were deemed more urgent than
infrastructure development at the time. However,
population density remains one of the aspects that
must be considered by local governments if they
wish to achieve a good Human Development Index
to improve the regional economy. If population
density is not considered, in the long run thiscan
lead to social problems that will in turn become
problems for local governments.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The conclusions of this study are as follows:
1. Own-Source Revenue (PAD) has a positive
effect on capital expenditure. An increase in
PAD will increase the amount of capital
expenditure of city and district governments in
Java.
2. Population size negatively affects the capital
expenditure of city and district governments in
Java. Increasing the population size will actually
decrease the amount of capital expenditure on
the part of these governments.
3. Population density has no effect on capital
expenditure. Any increase or decrease in
population density does not change the amount
of capital expenditure on the part of city and
district governments in Java.
JCAE Symposium 2018 – Journal of Contemporary Accounting and Economics Symposium 2018 on Special Session for Indonesian Study
148

Based on the results of the present study, several
suggestions present themselves for both the
city/district governments and for further research,
namely:
1. The local government should be expected to pay
more attention to its demographic aspects if it is
to avoid social problems caused by high
population and population density.
2. Future research can explore other variables that
affect capital expenditure, both financial and
non-financial.
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