The Implementation of Conceptual Change Model to Reduce

Misconception of Scientific Literacy to the Students of A7 PGSD UPY

2018

Kun Hisnan Hajron

, Ali Mustadi

and Eka Lutfiyatun

Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang, Malang, Indonesia

Keywords: Misconception, Scientific Literacy, Conceptual Change Model.

Abstract: The purpose of this article is to present how to reduce the pre-service primary school teachers’ misconceptions

of scientific literacy through the implementation of Conceptual Change Model (CCM) in Universitas PGRI

Yogyakarta (UPY). This study was a classroom action research that implemented Kemmis & Mc.Taggart’s

research design. The subjects of this study were 29 pre-service primary school teachers whereas the objects

of this study were misconceptions regarding scientific literacy. The data are collected through tests and

observations, then analysed by using descriptive and quantitative analysis. The results obtained from this

study consisted of two indicators: the ability to understand the concepts and the ability to communicate the

scientific rules in which both indicators were respectively measured through tests and observations. In the

mapping tests of misconceptions of scientific literacy, the percentage of students’ score was 67%. After CCM

had been implemented in cycle I, the percentage of student score increased to 69%. After reflecting and

improving the teaching intervention in cycle I, the presentation score in the cycle II was increased to 74%.

The aforementioned results indicated the decrease of students’ misconceptions rate from 34% to 31% and to

26% lastly. The results obtained at this stage were classified into four categories: poor, fair, good, and

excellent. In the early stages, there were 7 students counted into poor category, 20 students were in fair

category, and 2 students were in good category. After the cycle II, there were 5 students in poor category, 15

students were in fair category, and 4 students were in good category. After the cycle II had been accomplished,

there was a significant increase where no students who fell into poor category, 19 students were in fair

category, and 7 students were in good category, and 3 students were in excellent category. Expected after the

model applied, the learning process in Indonesia is able to minimize misconception.

1 INTRODUCTION

In the aim of creating a professional teacher,

concentration and focus are needed in two ways,

namely the material and method of delivering the

material. However, it is often found that students have

the wrong understanding of a concept, which is

caused by misunderstandings in receiving the

material or lacking in the exact material taught by the

teacher in the previous school year. This certainly

creates its own problems in learning. With the wrong

understanding of the concept or often referred to as

misconception, students cannot describe the material

correctly.

One of the subjects that must be taken by PGSD

students in second semester is Natural Sciences (IPA)

for Primary students. This course requires students to

be able to master natural sciences material whose

scope is still quite general and not too deep. However,

if the understanding of the concept of this course, i.e.

Natural Sciences for Primary Students, contains

misconceptions, it will potentially have a big

influence on the understanding of prospective

students who will be taught when they have become

teachers. Thus the accuracy of student understanding

is crucial.

The underdevelopment of students' understanding

of Natural Sciences material is often also called

scientific literacy. (DeBoer, 2000) explains that

scientific literacy is the main goal expected by all

science learners to be able to react to phenomena that

occur in the environment. An understanding of

literacy is increasingly growing every day. Initially

228

Hajron, K., Mustadi, A. and Lutﬁyatun, E.

The Implementation of Conceptual Change Model to Reduce Misconception of Scientiﬁc Literacy to the Students of A7 PGSD UPY 2018.

DOI: 10.5220/0008410302280234

In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Learning Innovation (ICLI 2018), pages 228-234

ISBN: 978-989-758-391-9

literacy was only related to the cognitive domain.

However, lately literacy skills, especially scientific

literacy, have evolved with coverage in both affective

and psychomotor domains.

Based on the results of an interview with one of

the lecturers of UPY (Universitas PGRI Yogyakarta)

in February 14, 2018, information was found that

PGSD's A7 class of 29 students could be categorized

as active with the intensity of asking and answering

as well as having a fairly solid class. The learning

model commonly used by lecturers is inquiry.

Overall, students can take courses well. However,

there is one habit that is often shown by students,

which is when they argue or answer questions often

which are conveyed very far from the substance of the

correct concept. In other words, students fail to

reinterpret the correct conceptual understanding. This

could be a symptom of misconceptions so that actions

need to be taken that can reduce the student's

scientific literacy misconceptions. One of them is by

applying a learning model that can reduce the risk of

scientific literacy misconceptions. The learning

model chosen must have a relationship with the

psychological conditions of students who tend to be

idealistic.

One of the learning model that can be applied is

Conceptual Change Model (CCM). The model is

chosen because it has several stages. Firstly, the stage

allows students to use the concept they have

(idealism). Secondly, at the next stage the concept is

"collided" with facts that can open students' thinking,

so that students themselves ultimately decide to

change their initial view of the concept. Thus

Conceptual Change Learning will be applied to

reduce scientific literacy misconceptions.

1.1 Misconception of Scientific Literacy

As a prospective teacher, ideally PGSD (primary

teacher education) students must have extensive and

correct knowledge. Knowledge or understanding of

this concept is not only in the form of theory, but also

how to convey and practice it. Rosser stated that the

correct conception is a conception that is in

accordance with scientific concepts (Dahar, 1989).

(Vosniadou, 2009) explains that there are 3 potential

that will occur for a learner's understanding of

preconceptions, misconceptions or alternative

understandings that will be seen and will gradually

become stronger. Sure, of these three possibilities the

most unexpected is misconception.

(Suparno, 2005) explains that misconception is an

inaccurate understanding of concepts, misuse of

concepts, classification of false examples, chaos of

different concepts and hierarchical relationships of

incorrect concepts. Errors in understanding concepts

are generally found at the level of students who are

still early because they have not encountered much

reinforcement. However, in fact, even an advanced

student often finds misconceptions.

(Tayubi, 2005) reveals that misconception can

occur for anyone. n connection with the lectures,

misconceptions not only occur in students. However,

it is also potentially experienced by teachers. When

viewed from the process of guiding students to avoid

misconceptions in learning, then the problem now is

what the consequences if students experience

misconception in learning. To answer this problem, a

teacher must at least be able to know the causes of

misconceptions in his students, understand the

characteristics of their misconceptions, so that they

are able to find the best solution to overcome the

problem.

(Suparno, 2010) describes that a change in

concept or accommodation requires some conditions

and conditions as follows:

1. Students are not satisfied with the initial concept.

Students will change the concept if they believe

that their old concepts can not be used again to

examine the issue and recent phenomenon.

2. The new concept should be understood, rational

and able to solve problems and new phenomena.

3. The new concept should be able to troubleshoot

and resolve the issues in advance, and are also

consistent with theories or knowledge that

already existed before.

4. The new concept must be useful for the

development of new research and discoveries.

The word literacy may still be a bit foreign to

some people, even though literacy has often been

heard. The definition is still very limited that is able

to read and write or free of illiteracy. A little worrying

when there are many people involved in the world of

education, there are still many who misinterpret the

notion of literacy. Initially, literacy is the ability to

use language and images in rich and diverse forms to

read, write, listen, speak, see, present, and think

critically about ideas. More broadly (Ravitch, 1983)

explains that scientific literacy is the relationship

between science and social life which goes hand in

hand with the use of technology so that it can have a

positive impact on everyday life.

With regard to each aspect of education, literacy

has its own meaning, as well as literacy in the field of

science which is also called scientific literacy.

Scientific literacy is the ability of a person to

understand, communicate, orally and in writing, and

apply science knowledge in solving problems so as to

have high attitudes and sensitivity to self and

The Implementation of Conceptual Change Model to Reduce Misconception of Scientiﬁc Literacy to the Students of A7 PGSD UPY 2018

229

environment in making decisions based on facts,

theories, concepts, and laws of science (Toharudin,

Hendrawati and Rustaman, 2011). National Science

Teachers Association, explains that someone who has

good scientific literacy is a person who is able to use

the concepts of science, process skills, and scientific

values in every decision making when interacting

with others or the environment , and understanding

the interrelationships between science, technology

and other aspects of society including social and

economic development (National Science Teachers

Association, 1971).

It is important for people to be able to adjust to the

times to have a good level of scientific literacy.

(National Science Teachers Association, 1982) states

that the main purpose of science education is to

develop individuals who have scientific literacy,

namely individuals who understand how science,

social and technology can influence everyday

decision making. (Gallagher, 1971) adds that for a

modern democratic society, understanding the

relationship between science, social and technology

is more important than just understanding the

concepts and processes of science. This is reinforced

by (Hofstein and Yager, 1982) who assert true science

education is taught by connecting one's personal

needs with the essentials encountered in everyday

life, and added by (Ramsey, 1989) science education

ideally produces students who are able to identify the

use of science-related social issues that occur,

understand the context of social issues, understand

the decision-making process both personally and in

groups, identify social issues around it in personal

viewpoint, make planning steps to be undertaken, and

implement the perceived planning or program the best

thing to do.

1.2 Conceptual Change Model

Most learning models focus only on improving

cognitive abilities, whereas affective and

psychomotor abilities are later strongly demanded to

be sharpened. (Pintrich, Marx and Boyle, 1993)

explains that learning models that only focus on

cognitive enhancement will reduce the potential of

students to know their expectations, ideals and needs.

One of the learning models that gives space for the

development of cognitive, affective and psychomotor

abilities is the Conceptual Change Model. The

Conceptual Change Model (CCM) was first

developed at Cornell University since 1978, and has

grown to this day. The results of the CCM

development study in science learning shaped the

students' knowledge based on their understanding of

a phenomenon and the effect of new information

received. Posner argues that theoretically, CCM has

two identifiable components in learning activities, ie

status and conceptual ecology. The importance of

understanding of concepts is also voiced by (Yip,

2001) which states the main purpose of science

learning is not on how students are able to remember

or memorize factual subject matter, but be able to

comprehend concepts comprehensively.

(Jonassen, Strobel and Gottdenker, 2005) states

conceptual change is the process of reconstructing

and reorganizing one's understanding of a concept.

(Strike and Posner, 1985) identifies seven

components related to conceptual ecology: anomalies

(specific rejection characters of new ideas),

prototypical exemplars and images (past

experiments), past experiences (conceptual-

conceptual derived from past student experiences),

analogies and metaphors, epistemological

commitments, metaphysical beliefs and concepts

(related to the development of orderliness, symmetry,

or regularity of all phenomena universe and beliefs

about the absolute space or time) as well as other

knowledge (knowledge of other fields of study and

conceptually competitive). (Lin, Liu and Chu, 2011)

to change the concept of a person using cognitive

conflict, the teacher must be able to bring up the

concepts of existing students, present contradictory

concepts, evaluate changes in students' concepts and

motivations to further convince students of new

concepts. Ratna Wilis said that in conditions of

cognitive conflict students are faced with three

choices, namely 1) maintaining their original intuition

2) revising some of their intuition through the process

of assimilation 3) changing their intuition views and

accommodating new knowledge. Conceptual change

occurs when students decide on the third option

(Dahar, 1996).

The application of Conceptual Change Model

through cognitive conflict according to (Santyasa,

2004) has six stages: 1) the presentation of conceptual

and contextual problems; 2) confrontation with

misconceptions related to the problem; 3)

confrontation of denial then demonstrating and

making analogies; 4) confrontation of proof of

scientific concepts and principles; 5) material

confrontation and contextual examples; 6)

confrontation questions to broaden the understanding

and application of knowledge significantly.

ICLI 2018 - 2nd International Conference on Learning Innovation

230

2 METHOD

This study uses classroom action research or action

research (PTK). The purpose of this study was to

reduce the scientific misconceptions of the literacy of

PGSD students of Yogyakarta PGRI University. This

study consists of two variables, namely the dependent

variable in the form of misconception of scientific

literacy, while the free variable is Conceptual Change

Model (CCM). This study was conducted in the

second semester of class A7 PGSD UPY from March

to May 2018. Subjects in this study were students of

second semester class A7 PGSD UPY which

amounted to 29 students. Whereas the object of this

research is scientific literacy misconceptions on

students that are carried out in a cycle, which begins

with planning, then carrying out actions and

observations or observations, and reflections can be

seen in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Spiral KemMis Mc Taggart model (Kusumah and

Dwitagama, 2011).

In this study the research instrument used to

collect data was tests and observations, which

continued with analyzing research data. The steps in

analyzing the data in this study are: quantitative data

analysis and descriptive data analysis.

The test is a form of competency measurement

that is examined in an objective manner. The form of

questions used is a form of true and false questions.

Indicators of scientific misconceptions of literacy

measured through tests are the ability to understand

material.

Observations were made to measure the ability to

communicate materials. Observation is done in every

meeting, where in a meeting of conducted games that

require students to be able to explain the 16 elements

in the material. Observations in this study used

observer services to measure changes in scientific

misconceptions of literacy, either before or after

treatment. Researchers utilize the observer services

for the results of measurements free of subjectivity

researchers. Observation sheets are equipped with

observation guidelines containing categories that are

used as measurement parameters, so that objective

and measurable data can be collected.

Table 1: Category formulation.

Range score

Category

1-4

Less

5-8

Enough

9-12

Good

13-16

Excellent

3 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

In this section, will be explained about the description

of the results of research and the elaboration. Before

the study was carried out, the researcher first made

observations and interviews with lecturers who had

taught in the class. Interviews conducted by

researchers by asking the accuracy of the concept in

answering questions in writing and when giving

opinions or explaining. This study was conducted in

PGSD UPY. Based on the observations made, in one

class of PGSD study program in UPY has

misconception of scientific literacy. Subjects in this

study were all students of second semester class A7

PGSD UPY which amounted to 29 students with

details of the number of male students 11 and the

number of female students 18. Meanwhile, based on

the results of observational data obtained data that 22

students are indicated to have misconception

scientific linguistic. This section will describe the

pre-action, the implementation of cycle 1 and the

implementation of cycle 2.

3.1 Pre-action

The initial activity before the research was to find

information about the initial conditions of students.

The acquisition of the information is done by the

researcher by doing material mapping test which

indicates a misconception on the students. This test

was conducted on March 16, 2018. The test contains

75 questions consisting of 15 sub-materials in natural

sciences for the first and second semester. The results

of the mapping of pre-action misconceptions for

indicators capable of understanding the concepts of

science shown in Table 2.

The Implementation of Conceptual Change Model to Reduce Misconception of Scientiﬁc Literacy to the Students of A7 PGSD UPY 2018

231

Table 2: Pre-action test results ability to understand natural

sciences (IPA) concepts.

Material

Percentage of correct

answers

92%

87%

67%

79%

77%

72%

70%

82%

72%

74%

76%

70%

68%

70%

74%

Based on the Table 2, the largest misconception

on scientific literacy of the second semester students

of class A7 PGSD UPY in pre-action mapping was in

material 3, namely the respiratory system, material 7

circulatory system and material 13, namely addictive

substances. While the observation results of students'

ability to communicate the concepts of science

properly shown at Table 3.

Table 3: Pre-action observation results of the ability to

communicate scientific concepts.

Category

Students

Less

24%

Enough

68,9%

Good

6,8%

Excellent

Based on the table above, 7 out of 29 students still

have less categories, 20 of 29 students have enough

categories, and 2 of 29 students have good categories.

Meanwhile, no students are categorized excellent.

Based on the observation data above, it can be

concluded that scientific misconception of students'

literacy semester II class A7 on indicators able to

communicate the scientific concepts of literacy still

need to be improved by reducing concepts containing

misconception.

3.2 The Implementation of Cycle 1

This stage includes planning, action, test &

observation, and reflection.

3.2.1 Planning

Action planning includes a discussion determining

the material/competence used in this study is the

theory of teaching materials development. The

material to be tested at this stage is material 3, namely

the human respiratory system which consists of 4 sub-

chapters. After determining the subject that will be

used in this study, the researcher prepares the lecture

reference unit (SAP) to be used in this study, besides

the researcher also preparing the test and observation

sheet.

3.2.2 Action

Implementation of cycle 1 convey material about the

human respiratory system consisting of 4 sub chapters

namely understanding the respiratory system,

respiratory equipment in humans, respiratory

mechanisms in humans and disturbances that occur in

the human respiratory system.

3.2.3 Test and Observation

The result of the cycle 1 test on human respiratory

system material is 69%. This result shows an increase

compared to the mapping score, but the improvement

is very minimal. While the results of observation in

cycle 1 regarding the ability to communicate

scientific concepts can be seen in the Table 4.

Table 4. The results of observation cycle 1 ability to

communicate the concepts of science.

Category

Students

Less

17,2%

Enough

62%

Good

13,7%

Excellent

The result of observation in the first cycle shows

that the students' scientific misconception of literacy

has started to decline, but there are still 5 students

who are categorized as less, 18 students are

categorized enough and 4 students are categorized

good. While there are no students who are categorized

excellent.

3.2.4 Reflection

Based on the results of the tests and observations in

cycle I shows there is an increase in pre-action after

the action in cycle I. But not all the scientific

misconceptions of student literacy have been reduced.

ICLI 2018 - 2nd International Conference on Learning Innovation

232

There are several elements that need to be improved

in the next meeting are as follows:

1. The use of analogy should be as close as possible

to the condition of the student.

2. Does not limit students' initial opinions on

material.

3. Increase evidence of facts related to the correct

concept.

3.3 The implementation of Cycle 2

This stage includes planning, action, test &

observation, and reflection.

3.3.1 Planning

Action planning includes discussion determining the

material to be taught in the study. The material chosen

is material 7, namely the human blood circulation

system. This material is divided into three sub-

chapters namely human blood circulation, human

circulatory system, and circulatory system disorders.

After determining the subject that will be used in this

research, the researcher prepares the lecture reference

unit (SAP) to be used in this research, besides the

researcher also preparing the test and observation

sheet.

3.3.2 Action

In the implementation of cycle 2 is almost the same

as the process of implementation of cycle 1, but some

improvements have been made based on reflection

with different materials.

3.3.3 Test and Observation

The results of the tests in cycle 2 show a better

improvement than cycle 1 in reducing the scientific

misconception of student literacy. In cycle 2, the

overall student test results show a truth level of 74%

answers. While the observation results in the student

category shown at Table 5.

Table 5: The results of observation in cycle 2, the ability to

communicate the concepts of science.

Category

Students

Less

Enough

65,5%

Good

24,1%

Excellent

10,3%

From the Table 5, it can be seen that the increase

is 19 students categorized enough, 7 students

categorized good, and 3 students categorized

excellent. While there are no students in the less

category.

3.3.4 Reflection

The results of the overall study have shown a

reduction in scientific literacy misconceptions that

can be seen in the final test results of each cycle. This

shows that the application of Conceptual Change

Model can reduce the scientific misconceptions of

second semester students of class A7 PGSD UPY.

The study was conducted in two cycles based on

Kurt Lewin (Kurnianto, 2009). Each cycle consisted

of two meetings. The action taken is to apply the

learning method Conceptual Change Model. The

results of actions in cycle I and cycle II show

improvement in each cycle. The accuracy of

understanding of any concept of science or other

sciences absolutely must be owned by every

prospective teacher, in other words the misconception

should be avoided as much as possible. But it is

inevitable that sometimes the conditions encountered

by someone do not lead to the correct concept. From

the results of this study, obtained data as follows:

1. For the first indicator, able to understand the

concepts of science that conducted measurement

through the test, obtained an increase in the

number of correct answers, or reduced student’s

misconception. In the pre-action score, the

average score of the students was 67%, the cycle

score was 69% and in the 2nd cycle to 74%. It

shows the ability to understand the scientific

concepts of students increased.

2. In the next indicator, able to communicate the

concepts of science correctly measured using

observation also increased. The ability category

to properly communicate science concepts to

students during pre-action is 7 students in the less

category, 20 students in the enough category and

2 students in the good category.

3. In cycle 1, there are 5 students who are in less

category, 15 students in enough category, and 4

students in good categories. While in cycle 2, 19

students were in the enough category, 7 students

in the good category, and 3 students in the

excellent category. Thus the ability of students in

communicating the scientific concepts correctly

increased so that misconception on students'

understanding can be said to be reduced.

Learning about Conceptual Change Model trains

students to be able to correct students'

misunderstanding in a non-coercive way. Based on

The Implementation of Conceptual Change Model to Reduce Misconception of Scientiﬁc Literacy to the Students of A7 PGSD UPY 2018

233

the discussion of the results above, it can be

concluded that by applying Conceptual Change

Model can reduce the scientific misconceptions of the

second semester students of class A7 PGSD UPY on

literacy.

4 CONCLUSIONS

After CCM had been implemented in cycle I, the

percentage of student score increased to 69%. After

reflecting and improving the teaching intervention in

cycle I, the presentation score in the cycle II was

increased to 74%. The aforementioned results

indicated the decrease of students’ misconceptions

rate from 34% to 31% and to 26% lastly. The results

obtained at this stage were classified into four

categories: poor, fair, good, and excellent. In the early

stages, there were 7 students counted into poor

category, 20 students were in fair category, and 2

students were in good category.

After the cycle II, there were 5 students in poor

category, 15 students were in fair category, and 4

students were in good category. After the cycle II had

been accomplished, there was a significant increase

where no students who fell into poor category, 19

students were in fair category, and 7 students were in

good category, and 3 students were in excellent

category. Expected after the model is applied, the

learning process in Indonesia is able to minimize

misconception.

Based on the findings of the study and discussion

of the results of the study, it can be concluded that,

lecture activities carried out using Conceptual

Change Model can reduce scientific misconceptions

of student literacy. With these activities students will

be accustomed to expressing answers and arguing

appropriately.

REFERENCES

Dahar, R. W. (1989) Teori-teori Belajar. Jakarta: Erlangga.

Dahar, R. W. (1996) Teori-Teori Belajar. Jakarta:

Erlangga.

DeBoer, G. E. (2000) ‘Scientific literacy: Another look at

its historical and contemporary meanings and its

relationship to science education reform’, Journal of

Research in Science Teaching: The Official Journal of

the National Association for Research in Science

Teaching, 37(6), pp. 582–601.

Gallagher, J. J. (1971) ‘A broader base for science

teaching’, Science Education, 55(3), pp. 329–338.

Hofstein, A. and Yager, R. E. (1982) ‘Societal issues as

organizers for science education in the ‘80s’, School

science and mathematics, 82(7), pp. 539–547.

Jonassen, D., Strobel, J. and Gottdenker, J. (2005) ‘Model

building for conceptual change’, Interactive Learning

Environments, 13(1–2), pp. 15–37.

Kurnianto, R. (2009) Penelitian Tindakan Kelas. Surabaya:

Aprinta.

Kusumah, W. and Dwitagama, D. (2011) Mengenal

Penelitian Tindakan Kelas. Jakarta: Indeks.

Lin, Y. C., Liu, T. C. and Chu, C. C. (2011) ‘Implementing

clickers to assist learning in science lectures: The

Clicker-Assisted Conceptual Change model’,

Australasian Journal of Educational Technology,

27(6).

National Science Teachers Association (1971) ‘NSTA

position statement on school science education for the

70s’. TheAssociation.

National Science Teachers Association (1982) ‘Science-

technology-society: Science education for the 1980s’.

Washington, DC.

Pintrich, P. R., Marx, R. W. and Boyle, R. A. (1993)

‘Beyond cold conceptual change: The role of

motivational beliefs and classroom contextual factors in

the process of conceptual change’, Review of

Educational research, 63(2), pp. 167–199.

Ramsey, J. M. (1989) ‘A curricular framework for

community-based STS issue instruction’, Education

and urban society, 22(1), pp. 40–53.

Ravitch, D. (1983) The Troubled Crusade: American

Education, 1945-1980. Publication Sales. 10 East 53rd,

New York: Publication Sales, Basic Books, Inc.

Santyasa, I. W. (2004) ‘Model problem solving dan

reasoning sebagai alternatif pembelajaran inovatif’, in

Konvensi Nasional Pendidikan Indonesia. Surabaya.

Strike, K. . and Posner, G. . (1985) A conceptual Change

View of Learning and Understanding. Florida:

Academic Pres.Inc.

Suparno, P. (2005) Miskonsepsi dan Perubahan2Konsep

Pendidikan Fisika. Jakarta: Grasindo.

Suparno, P. (2010) Filsafat konstruktivisme dalam

pendidikan. Yogyakarta: Kanisius.

Tayubi, Y. R. (2005) ‘Identifikasi Miskonsepsi Pada

Konsep-Konsep Fisika Menggunakan Certainty of

Response Index (CRI)’, Mimbar Pendidikan, 3(24), pp.

4–9.

Toharudin, U., Hendrawati, S. and Rustaman, A. (2011)

Membangun Literasi Sains Peserta Didik. Bandung:

Humaniora.

Vosniadou, S. (2009) International handbook of research

on conceptual change. Routledge.

Yip, D. Y. (2001) ‘Promoting the development of a

conceptual change model of science instruction in

prospective secondary biology teachers’,

I2nternational Journal of Science Education, 23(7), pp.

755–770.

ICLI 2018 - 2nd International Conference on Learning Innovation

234