The Dynamics of the Post-Truth Era in Africa:

History and Critical Thinking

Devita Prinanda

Department of International Relations, University of Muhammadiyah Malang, Malang, Indonesia

Keywords: post-truth, politics, media, history, Africa

Abstract: The revival of Post-Truth terminology in 2016 marked the new phase of international politics. The election

of Donald Trump as President of the United States (US) and the British Exit (Brexit) from the European

Union events have turned into Post-Truth events. Although the terminology has thrived in society recently,

history has demonstrated that the Post-Truth era has been taking place since post-colonialism in Africa.

African leaders have utilised their power to construct the truth, notably at the national level. They were

acting on behalf of independence to spread partial truths through state-owned media. However, the

continuation of post-truth dynamics in Africa has developed variously and impacted on both national and

international politics. This paper elaborates on the dynamics of the post-truth era historically and explains

the implications and challenges in a critical way. The results found that the post-truth era in Africa had

various contexts for each region. The factors that gave rise to the diffusion of fake news included authority

over the media, rumours during the election and post- electoral crises, political and economic instability and

the national interest in international politics. The countermeasures in each state were different. The African

government has restrained the spread of fake news through legal frameworks, regulation, fake news

reporting services and even so far as internet disconnection or internet shut-down.

1 INTRODUCTION

The post-truth era is an epoch when the boundary

between truth and lies became blurred. The current

generation increases their self-capabilities by lying.

People tend to rule out the truth to hide self-

deficiencies and guilty feelings (Modreanu, 2017).

Ralph Keyes, in The Post Truth Era, explained that

youths tend to lie to improve their sense of self-

ability or to cover up mistakes in order to become

famous (Keyes, 2004).

Post-truth can be studied in political

communication and other derivative studies such as

journalism and communication technology. In the

perspective of journalism, Post-truth politics

engender fake news as the primary object (Hannan,

2018). Fake news can be overspread virally in quick

time by creating a sense of false reality or

propaganda. In this case, the communicators,

categorised as the government, political parties,

individuals and political institutions, play a role in

propagating the alternative facts that contribute to

mass consumption. At a further level, a society who

consumes false news has the potency to transmit it to

others. Currently, fake news is becoming widespread

and is used to drop or disparage individuals, parties,

or institutions. Fake news also causes a debate

between objective fact and subjectivity.

Studying post-truth politics in term of the media

as a form of communication technology (not media

as a content) creates an understanding of how the

development of communication technology creates

an easiness in fake news propagation. The flow of

information and communication is spread at large

through the internet. Unfortunately, it is hard to

identify and verify the information. With the

emergence of social media, the fake accounts

become an alternative to hoax dissemination (Al-

Rodhan, 2017).

Deception over facts is not a new phenomenon.

In the post-colonialism era, African leaders are

accustomed to manipulation. Manipulations were

habitually propagated by African leaders to gain

mass support. Government-owned national media is

the legacy of colonialism. Therefore, African

Government manipulated facts and spread false truth

through mass media easily. They acted on behalf of

anti-colonialism and violence in order to construct

332

Prinanda, D.

The Dynamics of the Post-Truth Era in Africa:.

DOI: 10.5220/0008821203320338

In Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Contemporary Social and Political Affairs (ICoCSPA 2018), pages 332-338

ISBN: 978-989-758-393-3

society stating how imperialists have committed

cruelty. On the other hand, private media - which did

not support the partial facts by the government -

were suppressed by the ruling party (Gumede,

2017).

In fact, some regions in Africa are still suffering

political conflicts ranging from post- election

quarrels up to the worst civil war. Political conflict

is the primary target of social media in order to

disseminate information to construct interest from

the conflicting parties. In this case, society has

questioned the truth about the scattered information.

This paper will elaborate on the dynamics of the

post-truth politics that occur in the African

continent. The choice of Africa as the main object of

this study is because the post-truth era in Africa had

a high level of complexity rendered by political and

economic stability. This paper provides shreds of

evidence based on historical facts to analyse how the

post-truth era has been occurring since post-

colonialism up until recent times. The discussion has

continued with critical thinking on how the African

government can resolve this phenomenon.

2 THE DYNAMICS OF THE

POST-TRUTH ERA IN AFRICA

2.1 The History of Media Development

in Africa

This sub-section will describe the history of the

media’s development in Africa. History has proven

that the media had a significant role in

disseminating post-truth in the African continent.

Dynamically, every region in Africa has a similar

history focused on media development.

In North Africa, France was the initiator of the

establishment of the media. In the 19th century,

French-published newspapers sought to create an

attractive society due to their occupation. Almost all

printed media in North Africa was owned by the

French and only some of them were owned by

indigenous people. The first Moroccan newspaper

was "African Liberal" in 1820 and the first

newspaper in Algeria was established in 1830.

At the beginning of the 20th century, Muslims

and nationalists rose up in North Africa. The revival

of Muslim and nationalists evoked content focused

on independence, reformation, and democracy in the

newspapers. At the time, France banned a media

reformation by nationalists. This century was a

historical turning point of the nationalist press.

The nationalist press disseminated anti-

colonialism as the main content of the newspaper. A

newspaper in Tunisia announced to society the

ruthlessness of French colonialism. In Algeria, the

nationalist newspaper named "Moudjahid" was the

first newspaper that supported independence. In

Morocco, the highlighted topics in the newspapers

were about anti-colonialism. In the 20th century,

some states gained independence which rendered a

turning point in the media. Before independence,

journalist’s activities were done secretly because of

the colonialists, but after independence, they ended

their concealment and began to publish

independence articles.

After independence in North Africa, media

became under the state’s ownership. The state had a

centralised media management system that it could

use to spread ideology. States also controlled radio

and television. They used the media as an instrument

to construct society under the new regime.

When the reformation happened at the end of the

20th century, journalists fought for the freedom of

the media. In this period, the emergence of private

media was inevitable. In Morocco, the mass media

issued different opinions on politics. Private media

in Morocco sometimes informed the public of the

different points of view compared to the state's

media. In Tunisia, the freedom of the media had an

impact on their government. The government was

criticised by the citizens who were affected by the

state limitations in national and international

policies. Therefore, the journalists who revolted

against the government were threatened and

imprisoned in this era (Zaghlami, 2010).

It also happened in Kenya; Jomo Kenyatta and

Daniel Arap Moi were the leaders of the first and

second regime. They controlled the media by

determining which news could be spread to society.

The fourth president of Kenya, Uhuru Kenyatta,

dominated the newspapers, television and radio.

After the liberalisation era, there were several

private media platforms in Kenya. However, the

government restricted the advertisement of private

media. This limitation was the main technique of the

African government against the private media which

had criticised the government (Ogola, 2018).

Globalisation formed friction in the media’s

development. Currently, every individual can be a

journalist who disseminates their news through

social media accounts or blogs. In Africa, the use of

social media is utilised to express different political

opinions. A study explained that the potential use of

social media n Africa concerning politics exceeds

the potential of the US and the United Kingdom

The Dynamics of the Post-Truth Era in Africa:

333

(UK) on the same topic (Portland, 2017). Social

media facilitated rumour and fake news without

knowing the truth behind the information. It is hard

to find the people behind the social media accounts

and to verify the validity of the information.

The next section of this paper explains how post-

truth phenomenon took place in Africa. It examines

post-truth in every region ranging from South Africa

to North Africa. The purpose of this examination is

to understand the dynamics of the post-truth era in

the African continent and to analyse how the media

history of post-colonialism can lead to the

emergence of post-truth in Africa.

2.2 Post-Truth Politics in Africa

The history of media development in Africa led to

the establishment of post-truth politics. State control

over the media gave rise to the creation of partial

facts, history manipulation, and social construction.

Mostly, African leaders concealed their corruption,

failures and other mistakes through wrongful

information disseminated by the media. Otherwise,

they used alternative facts to topple down their

political opponents. The African government took

advantage of the failings of society in consuming

information through the news. Citizens easily trusted

what their leader said without knowing the

propaganda behind the news (Gumede, 2017).

Other factors such as political instability and the

transformation of traditional media into social media

created a new step for disseminating alternative

facts. In this sub-chapter is described qualitatively

how representative cases from the regions in Africa

where information was outspread became

questionable. The author acquired the data from

journals, news, books and articles regarding what

happened in Africa in the context of post-truth.

Jacob Zuma is the fourth president of South

Africa. He used the media to explicate African

economic problems rendered by the inequity created

by the West. Zuma alleged that the failure of the

African economic transformation was due to

Western imperialism. He also claimed that the West

Country had constructed economy racially so then

South Africa was required to clear up racists from

within the economic aspect. Morover, he stated that

South Africa was a victim of white monopoly

capital. Zuma revealed the statements by using

national media. However, Zuma’s declarations were

used to cover his failures in leading South Africa.

Economic transformation was exploited to enrich his

family and other elite politics (even though they

were black elite) (Gumede, 2017).

White monopoly capital was spread as a

fabricated issue by President Zuma through social

media. He used fake accounts so then society would

find it hard to find out the origin of the news. By

using social media, there were widespread issues

regarding salvaging government rottenness. The

impact of the fabricated issue was that South

Africans campaigned against white monopoly

capital.

In the other hand, there was debate among

society about white monopoly capital. Activists

criticized Zuma's leadership and the campaign.

However, Zuma succeeded in creating confusion in

society about the truth of white monopoly capital.

Some citizens believed the menace of colonialism in

terms of the economy (Wasserman, 2017).

Similar phenomenon happened in Zimbabwe.

President Mugabe blamed British Colonialism for

the failure of his government. Mugabe disseminated

information about Britain’s tyranny to cover up the

corruption, thus ensuring his regime. Apart from

corruption, Mugabe’s government had poor public

services. He needed to divert political issues away

from societal accusations (Gumede, 2017).

There was also several fake items of news

propagated in Namibia. President Hage Geingob was

poorly reported through the media. First, he was

reported to have met with North Korean President,

Kim Jong Un in China (Mare, 2018). Second, there

were issues before the Swapo Party Congress that

brought Geingob down in relation to fighting for the

secretary general position. In these cases, the partial

truth was propagated by his political opponents from

his cabinet. One of the rumours circulating ahead of

the Swapo Party Congress was the triumph of the

Minister of Youth, Sports, and National Services,

Jerry Ekandjo, over Geingob. This rumour was

disseminated, even though the election had not yet

been implemented at the time (Confidente, 2017).

Shifting from South Africa, Ethiopia had a

different post-truth phenomenon. The South African

government had mostly salvaged themselves by

using propaganda and alternative facts, but it was

contrary to what happened in Ethiopia. In Ethiopia,

the government became a victim of fake news

attacks. There was news about aggression toward the

diaspora when they were celebrating through a

ceremony. After attacking the issue, activists in

Ethiopia protested against what their government did

to the diaspora. The impact of the protests by

activists impacted on the piracy of the government

website. The government deactivated the internet

connection in some areas. In fact, the aggression

issue was not confirmed as the truth, and foreign

ICoCSPA 2018 - International Conference on Contemporary Social and Political Affairs

334

journalists confirmed it. However, the actual news

was questionable because the issue was politically

constructed and addressed the tyrannical

government.

Another item of false news in Ethiopia was the

termination of diplomatic relations between Ehtiopia

and South Sudan. The news was detrimental to the

political stability of both countries. Lately, the issues

were confirmed to have been incorrect (Yilma,

2017).

In West Africa, the Ivory Coast experienced

post-truth politics during the election in 2010. After

there had been no election for ten years, the election

turned into a civil war in 2011. The election

pronounced Alassane Outtara as the winner. On the

other hand, Laurent Gbagbo also claimed victory.

Gbagbo’s supporters protested the election result.

They closed down the media and prohibited the

news spread about the election’s result. Journalists

hid themselves and there were no newspapers.

Because there was no verified information from the

national media, false news spread quickly, and the

internet was the leading source of alternative

information that could be absorbed by society.

Social media became an alternative to communicate

and was used to propagate issue. The predominant

problem of using the media as an alternative to get

information about politics consisted of the

undetected accounts of news spreaders. Whether the

news spreaders were from citizen, diaspora, or

foreigners, debate about the unverified information

generated into debates and disputes that raised

hatred among both sides of political supporters.

Civil war in the Ivory Coast was inevitable

compounded by fake news (Schreiner, 2018).

Civil war in the Ivory Coast demonstrated that

rumours and false information could escalate

conflict intensity. Transformation from traditional

media to social media set the dilemma within the

context of society because of the unverified sources

of information. Conflicting political parties

propagated issue through social media and created

mass opinions that caused misunderstandings.

Muhammadu Buhari, the fifteenth president of

Nigeria, was poorly accused through news

dissemination. An issue spread about the closure and

relocation of Aso Rock Villa Church. The closure of

the church was alleged to Buhari because the church

did not represent Buhari’s religion. In fact, Buhari

claimed that the church was not closed to society.

Muhammadu Buhari was also reported as being sick

and having medication treatment abroad. In fact,

Buhari went to the UK for a state visit (Adoyo,

2016).

Fake news not only attacked political actors but

also business institutions. False news was used by

society and business opponents to drop other

companies. The Guardian reported that the Kia

Automobile company ended his company’s presence

in Nigeria because of the state’s poor economic.

This news was classified as false news.

Another alternative fact by The Guardian was

attacking an airline from Rwanda named Rwand Air.

The Guardian reported about fake visas that incurred

losses of about eight billion for Rwand Air. The fake

visas were reported for the Lagos-Dubai Route. The

report was subsequently confirmed by Rwand Air as

false news (Adeleke, 2016). Fake news in the

economic and political sphere turns into a dilemma,

whether or not the confirmation from the company

or political actor honestly justifies and clarifies the

news or they retrieve their true image.

Issues of religion and politics are sensitive. If

there is a trigger issue, then it can spread

extensively. In Angola, there was news about the

state being the only state that banned Muslims.

Several mosques were closed and destroyed by the

government. Islam was considered to be a form of

worship, and not a religion. Islam was still growing

in Angola. Only mosques which did not have a

permit were torn down. Some mosques were re-

opened. The government also tore down many

churches that were without permits. Muslims were a

minority in Angola who did not have any

recognition from the government. Besides, anti-

Muslim movements were also not recognised at the

same time.

The issue of banning Muslims by Angola was

spread during the election in the US. By

disseminating the news of banning Muslims, Angola

was considered to be a supporter of one of the

presidential candidates, Donald Trump. Trump

assumed Muslims to be a threat to the States. In this

case, Angola was regarded as continuing Trump’s

policy of banning Muslims (BBC, 2016).

Switching from Angola to South Sudan. The

insurgency in South Sudan could be exacerbated by

fake news among the government supporters

(Dinka) and in the rebellion (Nuer). If there was

news about the violence done by one group, then

another group would directly respond critically and

show revenge. It got worse if there was the

distribution of photos that contained an assassination

from one group, and the war became horrible. The

news about violence and assassinations was not

accurately verified. The photos that were distributed

were edited photos. Rumour spreaders usually added

an accurate media logo to the obsolete photo and

The Dynamics of the Post-Truth Era in Africa:

335

edited it to make it look like it was a recent

photograph. Conflicting groups easily believed the

news and condemned the opponent. False

information prompted war to enter its worst phase.

Because of the high trust from society in the news, if

someone confirmed it to be false news, then they

would be coveted as being a creator of fake news

(McCarthy, 2017).

In Egypt, there was fake news during the

election. Fake news generally described the

government’s crackdown on dissidents (Egyptian

Streets, 2018). Although the election was potentially

won by the existing leader (because there were

almost no opponents), fake news remained scattered.

It caused the president to become furious toward

both national and international media (Islam, 2018).

The government also targeted the reduction of false

information exploited by extremists.

Egypt also experienced being reported on by the

international media related to the approval of the

displacement of the capital of Jerusalem. The news

revealed that Egyptian intelligence along with the

US’s media promoted a plan to move the Israeli

Capital to Jerusalem. However, the Egyptian State

Information Service denied the news and considered

the news to be a false story (El-Sayed, 2018).

In the next sub-chapter, the author elaborates on

the efforts of the African Government in responding

to post-truth politics. The explanation of the

government’s efforts to overcome the phenomenon

of partial truth or false news will be explained in

detail. Some examples from representative states

will be mentioned to make for a more

comprehensive understanding.

2.3 African Response to Quell the Post-

Truth Politics

The sustainability of post truth is related to the

emergence of anti-media and anti-post truth. As an

effort to overcome the post-truth phenomenon, it

often focuses on oppressing the media and the

internet, as both of them act as information

providers, such as through media closure, arresting

journalists, internet shutdown and other restrictive

actions. Policy, law and other forms of regulation

are also categorised as efforts from the governments

of African countries in facing the existence of post-

truth dynamics.

The government of Ethiopia tried to reduce the

occurrence of fake news by restricting websites and

cyber tool usage. However, cyber tool usage was

viewed as a short-term countermeasure since there

were no clear procedures on website restriction.

It also restricted internet usage by using spyware.

This action proved to bring in disadvantageous

effects, since it cost a lot out of the government

budget. Hence, as Ethiopia was considered to be a

diplomatic representative in Africa, it would be

difficult if there was an internet restriction in the

area (Yilma, 2017).

Internet shutdown was one of the African

government‘s effort to reduce rumours. In several

countries such as Cameroon, Ethiopia and the

Republic Democratic Congo, the government issued

a kill switch or internet shutdown during election

and post-electoral crises (Lees, 2018). In the last

three years, 11 countries in Africa had implemented

an internet shutdown. Even though this effort on

some level was able to prevent rumours, it also

potentially created unnecessary damage in several

sectors, especially in the economic enterprises sector

(Mare, 2018).

Several countries decided to close down private

media with the conviction of distributing fake news.

In Tanzania, four media platforms were dismissed

for allegedly spreading false information (Lees,

2018). In Egypt, the government blocked several

media outlets such as Mada Masr, Daily News

Egypt, Human Rights Watch, and the BBC

(Egyptian Streets, 2018).

Moreover, the increase of media restrictions in

Egypt occurred at an alarming level. Egypt also

arrested several journalists who created a particular

image of the Egyptian government under Abdul

Fatha As- Sisi’s. Under Sisi’s leadership, the regime

was considered to be opposing the freedom of the

press (Islam, 2018).

Another action used to verify and crosscheck

news circulation was exercised by using tools for

filtering and figuring information. In Africa, "Africa

Check" was commonly used as a news checking tool

that provided web–based services for those who

wanted to crosscheck news validity. Africa Check

also provides training on how people should filter

news (Africa Check, 2018). "African Check" also

collaborated with the media to validate news

circulation. This method was good for African

society in the terms of gaining accurate news.

However, since this organisation was independent

and funded by philanthropists, some people argued

that fact checking was another way to spread fake

news.

Meanwhile, Kenya has been ranked as the

society with the highest rate of news consumption.

Based on a research study which was conducted

through a survey of 2000 citizens in Kenya, it

showed that 67% of Kenyans prefer to read detailed

ICoCSPA 2018 - International Conference on Contemporary Social and Political Affairs

336

information and 78% of them believed it to be

accurate news. Kenyan citizens were inclined to

seek and compare news to verify it. Generally, the

news which was disseminated frequently was

considered to be the best indicator of news validity

in Kenya. Thus, when a contrasting item of news

appeared, it was hardly believed by society. This

phenomenon shaped how the Kenyan people

consumed the media.

Another impact of the high level of activity by

the Kenyan people was that it affected the election

results. Getting closer to the election, the level of

media consumption in Kenya had risen. Youths

became the group who had the highest level of news

consumption in the context of political news. A

research study resulted in determining that 88% of

youths had consumed news. This condition was able

to reduce the absence of voters from the youth age

group. In this context, post-truth became a new

politic reality that should be faced by all of us, and

we should save democracy which could be damaged

because of this discourse (Portland, 2017).

An effort to save democracy in the dissemination

of information during the election in Kenya was the

establishment of the National Cohesion and

Integration Commission (NCIC). This institution

worked by identifying reports from the public and

social media which had hate speech content (NCIC,

2018).

Egypt also worked in helping society to report

and verify circulated information. The Egyptian

Government released a hotline to help people report

fake news through WhatsApp and a message

service. The Egyptian government also designed a

new social media platform to replace Facebook

(Egyptian Streets, 2018).

Apart from the above efforts to resolve fake

news problem, Egypt also had a judicial platform

named anti-cybercrime which passed through

parliament for further discussion (El-Sayed, 2018).

3 CONCLUSION

Regulation regarding the dissemination of fake news

mostly targeted only the media and journalists.

Journalists often distributed false news under

government instructions (which also frequently

happened in African countries). But, government

regulations had not yet succeeded in regulating

citizen journalists where rumours were distributed

through accounts maintained by individuals or

informal groups. Democracy in Africa was prone to

conflict, especially during elections. Thus, fake news

distribution could trigger increased conflict. Besides,

history also described how the media was often

occupied by the government post-colonialism.

African leaders tended to exploit the media to create

news which supported them.

It is essential for the international society,

especially in developing countries, to introduce and

apply a better curriculum in the digital era,

especially related to digital information. The

importance of this curriculum is laid in how society

consumes, understands, classifies, believes and

distributes valid information. A digital literacy

program will help society to consume news content

wisely and to better understand the position of

digital media in society.

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