The Landscape of International Students’ Slips of the Tongue in

Indonesian Contexts

Bagus Detrianto, Mudjia Rahardjo and Meinarni Susilowati

Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang, Indonesia

Keywords: Slips of the Tongue, International Students’ Utterances, Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim

Malang.

Abstract: Language is a very essential in human life, moreover English as foreign language. Since English language is

used almost all countries around the world as the international language. However, people often get

difficulties in practicing it and producing some errors. The most common speech error is slips of the tongue.

Therefore, this research aimed to analyse and observe the types of slips of the tongue and the possible

condition which caused the international students produce slips of the tongue in their oral presentations at

Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang. Thus, if second language learners know about

slips of the tongue, they will avoid to produce the same errors on slips of the tongue. The researchers used

descriptive qualitative approach since the data were derived from speakers’ utterances which were

transcribed. This research applied the theories proposed by Fromkin about eight types of slips of the tongue,

and Clark and Clark about the factors which influenced the slips of the tongue. The result showed that there

were 127 slips of the tongue found in international students’ utterances. The researchers found the fact that

the typology of slips of the tongue mostly produced by Africa speakers was substitutions which occurred 30

times in total, while the typology of slips of the tongue mostly produced by Asia speakers was deletions

which occurred 27 times in total. Furthermore, the most possible condition which might influence slips of

the tongue in international students’ utterances was situational anxiety. Due to the fact that they felt tired

because of their activities and assignments. Thus, it might influence them to produce slips of the tongue

when they did the oral presentations.

1 INTRODUCTION

As social beings, people cannot live without others.

They need to have interaction one another. In order

to interact one another, people use language as one

of the tools of their communication. It is obvious

that interaction among people in society to negotiate,

communicate, and work is totally needed. Basically,

people are able to share information, feelings,

expressions, and others through communication. It

means that language can be used as a medium of

communication to deliver human feelings, thoughts,

and even knowledge in learning process. Therefore,

language is truly essential in human life. As

Rahardjo (2004) states that people always try to get

mutual understanding in doing communication. It is

because bad communication can lead to a complete

breakdown in relationship, and causing

misunderstanding which often leads to a conflict

between elements in social structure. Therefore, the

good way of delivering ideas and thoughts is indeed

important. Further, in order to have smooth

communication, people should follow the language

rules (Detrianto, 2018).

Communication itself can occur in all aspects of

social life, such as at home with family and relatives,

at school with students and other students or

teachers, at shopping places between sellers and

buyers, and others. From the communication, people

are able to have social interaction with others as

well. Due to the fact that social interaction or

communication among people is the human reality

(Quoc, 2018). Therefore, the use of language in

communication is indeed important. Moreover,

English language which used in almost all countries

in the world. Due to the fact that English is very

straight-forward language that can be used for the

need of education, trades, economics, and others

aspect among countries. Further, as human beings,

everybody wants to be socially accepted and

Detrianto, B., Rahardjo, M. and Susilowati, M.

The Landscape of International Students’ Slips of the Tongue in Indonesian Contexts.

DOI: 10.5220/0009917000960103

In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Recent Innovations (ICRI 2018), pages 96-103

ISBN: 978-989-758-458-9

language has provided a perfect tool of

communication (Detrianto, 2017). In practicing

English as an international language, however,

people seem to produce such slips of the tongue in

their utterances. Slips of the tongue is the most

common speech error that occurs unconsciously

which causes the speaker to produce the unsuitable

word(s) in morphological and phonological aspects.

This research, therefore, aimed to analyse and

observe the types of slips of the tongue of

international students’ utterances and the possible

conditions which caused the international students

produce slips of the tongue in their oral

presentations at Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana

Malik Ibrahim Malang (UIN Malang). Due to its

importance, the researchers aims to have a research

concerning on slips of the tongue on international

students’ utterances when they did the presentations

by using English language.

However, people get some difficulties in

practicing English as second language. Therefore,

mistakes are often found. It is usually found in

spontaneous speech which has the result in failure

(Altıparmak and Kuruoğlu, 2018). The most

common mistakes or speech error in language

practices is slips of the tongue. Speech error its self

means as categorical substitution of one sound for

another (Goldrick et al., 2016). Furthermore, slips of

the tongue are speech phenomena about

unintentional occurrence of some uttered mistakes

which result utterances are different from intended

message (Daud and Mustofa, 2018). According to

Jaeger (2004) and Asyura (2017), slips of the tongue

are an error in discourse production planning. It is

when the speaker wants to utter words, phrase, or

sentences but the utterances results are different

from the intended utterances. Slips of the tongue can

be happened when people are in tired condition,

drunk, in hurry, or nervous (Fromkin, 1973;

Aitchison, 2011; Mayasari, 2015). These phenomena

may occur in everyone speeches and in any

situations, including International students who

present their ideas as presenters. These phenomena

may occur in one’s speeches and in any situations,

including international students who share and

present their opinion, ideas, and thoughts in the

classroom or outside of classroom.

2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Furthermore, Dell (1986) argues slips of the tongue

are when people prepare to say some words but they

produce the sound which has the similar words.

Thus, they say something different from the words

that they wanted to say before. The transition of

delivering something from gesture to a vocal system

makes the role of language is more crucial in order

to avoid misunderstanding (Forrester and Rodriguez,

2015). Furthermore, the types of slips of the tongue

are: Anticipations, it is when a linguistics unit is

anticipated earlier in the utterances and give the

effect from another linguistics unit, then it has the

effect on the sentence as the word repeated twice

(Jaeger, 2004). However, it is different from shifts

(Carroll, 1994). Example: the sentence should be

“Take my bike”, but becomes “bake my bike”.

Another type is Perseverations; it is when a

linguistics unit is planned earlier in the utterance has

effected the linguistics unit later, therefore, it comes

after the origin (Carroll, 1994). Example: the

sentence should be “She pulled a tantrum”, but

becomes “She pulled a pantrum”.

Other type is Reversals or Exchange, it is when

there are two linguistics units placed not in the right

place or exchange places one another (Carroll,

1994). Example: the sentence should be “Katz and

Fodor”, but becomes “Fats and Kodor”. Other type

is Blends or Haplologies, it is when there are two

linguistics units which are combined into a single

item only (Carroll, 1994). Example: the sentence

should be “The children and young of today”, but

becomes “the chung of today”. It can be concluded

that the word “chung” comes from the combination

of the words “children and young”. Other type is

Misderivations or Shifts, it is when a linguistics unit

is shifted, therefore, it appears in another places

(Carroll, 1994). It can be occurred in the level of

affixes in the word. Example: That’s so shall be

ready in case he decide to hits it. From that

sentence, it should be “decides to hit it”. Other type

is Substitutions, it is when a linguistics unit is

replaced by another linguistics unit in the sentence

(Carroll, 1994). Example: the sentence should be

“Before the place opens”, but becomes “before the

place close”. According to Fromkin (1973) and

Clark and Clark (1977), when speaker produce slips

of the tongue in substitution aspect, the word may

still have the relation on phonologically or

semantically.

Other type is Additions, it is when there is an

additional linguistic unit attached in the sentence

(Carroll, 1994). It can be typically related to

phonemes, morphemes, affixes, articles,

prepositions, conjunctions, whole words, or even

phrases. Example: the sentence should be “She does

not explain the topic carefully”, but becomes “She

does not explain the topic carefully enough”. Other

The Landscape of International Students’ Slips of the Tongue in Indonesian Contexts

type is Deletions, it is when a linguistics unit is

disappears from its place in the sentence. It can be in

the form of phonemes, morphemes, affixes, articles,

prepositions, conjunctions, and etc (Carroll, 1994).

Example: the sentence should be “the baby sees

fireworks”, but becomes “the baby see fireworks”.

In that case, the affix is omitted.

In addition, related to another research problem

about the factor or conditions which may influence

slips of the tongue. The researchers referred to the

theory proposed by Clark and Clark (1977). Those

are cognitive difficulty, situational anxiety, and

social factor. First factor is cognitive difficulty, it is

when speaker take so much time to produce word(s).

The speaker tries to recall the memories, it can be

related to vocabularies, sentences, and etc. Another

factor is situational anxiety, it is when the speaker

becomes tense, anxious, or worries because of the

surrounded situation. Whereas social factor is when

the speaker has some difficulties in producing the

words or sentences because the speaker feels under

pressure. Therefore, those two research problems are

related one another. In order to know why the

speakers produced slips of the tongue, the

researchers also did the analysis on the factors or

conditions which might influence them. As Sari,

Saman and Syahrani (2016) stated that slips of the

tongue are very complex phenomenon to be

understood due to its relations with other factors or

even field of the studies.

In this research, the researchers focused on the

types of slips of the tongue produced by the

international students, and the possible conditions

which cause the slips of the tongue. Further, the

researchers took the data by using audio recording

when the speakers do the oral presentations and

interview sections at Universitas Islam Negeri

Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang. In order to analyse

the data, the researchers used the theories proposed

by Fromkin (1973) about eight types of slips of the

tongue, those are: anticipations, preservations,

reversals or exchange, blends or haplologies,

misderivations or shifts, substitutions, additions, and

deletions. Further, the researchers also used theory

proposed by Clark and Clark (1977) about the

conditions which cause the slips of the tongue. This

research is expected to give new insightful

knowledge especially for the second language

learners about slips of the tongue. As Popper (1934)

stated that in order to know the truth, people should

first know the false. Thus, if second language

learners know about the most common slips of the

tongue, they will not do the same error in their

utterances. Therefore, this research is very worth-

doing.

There are some previous studies which were

conducted by other researchers that are focusing on

slips of the tongue. The first previous study was

conducted by Kawachi (2002) with the title Practice

Effects on Speech Production Planning: Evidence

from Slips of the Tongue in Spontaneous versus Pre-

Planned Speech in Japanese. He put the focus on

how practice in expressing the content to be

conveyed in a specific situation influences speech

production planning process. Different from his

research, in this research the research put the focus

on English language in International students’

utterances. Another previous study was conducted

by Asyura (2017) in International E-Journal of

Advances in Social Sciences, he had a research

focussed on slips of the tongue on Stand Up Comedy

Show in Indonesia. The result showed that the slips

of the tongue happened in phonetics, syllables, and

words. Further, the pause happened were pause

because respiratory and the speaker experiencing

doubts in delivering the speeches. While the factors

were nervousness, hesitance, fear, and too careful

due to the need of time management and competitive

situation. However, there are some differences

between Asyura’s research and this research. In this

research, the researchers put the focus on an

academic issue in International students’

presentations. While Asyura’s research put the focus

on the entertainment issue. Thus, the settings were

different, indeed.

Other previous study was conducted by Qi Zhu

and Binhe Liu (2018) in Teacher Education and

Curriculum Studies Journal. They had a research

focus on A Study of Categorization and Causes of

Speech error. The result showed that motivating

teaching strategy is tentatively recommended to

create situations that may encourage the production

of self-repairs and give the learners more

opportunity to use the target language. However,

their research is different from this research. They

put the focus on a big umbrella which is speech

error. However, this research put more focus on

more specific error which is slips of the tongue in

international students’ utterances. It is important for

English teacher, lecturer, and educators who have

the concern on English as foreign language. Further,

if second language learners know about the most

common slips of the tongue, they will not do the

same error in their utterances. Other previous study

was conducted by Daud and Mustofa (2018), The

research focus on the identification of slips of the

tongue in EFL classroom: one error that blocked the

ICRI 2018 - International Conference Recent Innovation

students’ fluency in speaking. Thus, this research

was conducted in the context of teaching and

learning activities in the classroom. However, there

are some differences between this research and Daud

and Mustofa research’s. This research put the focus

on the international students’ utterances only,

whereas the previous study was not.

Further, from those gaps on previous studies, the

findings of this research are expected to be one of

the sources focusing on the language production

which leads to the discussion of slips of the tongue.

Practically, this is expected to be useful for readers,

lecturers, students, and the next researchers to have

further research on this area. Furthermore, for the

lecturers, the result of this research is expected to be

an additional teaching material. For the students, the

findings of this research are expected to give them

the knowledge about the types of slips of the tongue

and the possible conditions which cause the slips of

the tongue. Thus, the second language learners will

push themselves to practice their English more with

no errors on slips of the tongue. Due to the fact that,

understanding the problem of slips of the tongue by

knowing the types (Fromkin, 1973) and possible

factors or condition which might influence it (Clark

and Clark, 1977), the English learners would avoid

to make the errors on slips of the tongue when the

have conversations, classroom presentation, and etc.

Due to the important of this study and all the gaps

from the previous studies, therefore, this research is

very worth-doing.

3 METHOD

This research focused on the study of slip of tongue

in International students’ utterances. Further, this

research belongs to interpretive paradigm since it

focussed on the understanding of phenomenon

which are the types of slips of the tongue, and the

possible conditions which might influence it.

Furthermore, the researchers used a descriptive

qualitative approach since the data obtained are in

the forms of words which were transcribed from the

audio recorder of international students’ utterances.

It is used since the data are collected in the form of

words and phrases. Qualitative research is a means

for exploring and understanding the meaning of

individuals or groups to describe something related

to a social or human problem in the form of words,

sentences, numeric symbols, etc (George, 2008;

Creswell, 2009; Fitriana, 2018). This research put

the focus on describing the speech production which

is concerned on slips of the tongue in international

students’ utterances when they present particular

topics at Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik

Ibrahim Malang.

The focus of this research on the types of slips of

the tongue found and the possible conditions which

cause the slips of the tongue of international

students’ utterances in presenting particular topics at

Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim

Malang. In addition, the researchers have set some

criteria to select the International students to be

observed. Those criteria are: 1) the International

students who currently study at Universitas Islam

Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang, 2) the

students who used English language in presenting

particular topics. In addition, the international

students who are from Libya, Somalia, Sudan,

Cambodia. China, and Thailand. They used English

as their second language in their home countries.

From those six participants, there are two

participants who took English literature as their

majors. They are from Thailand and Libya. Another

one took English education as the major of the

study. On the other hand, other participants are not

majoring English literature nor English education

but they use English language when they have

lecturing in international classroom program.

Further, the researchers had the interactions and

conversations with the participants that later on the

participants were asked to present particular topics.

There are several steps that were undergone to

collect the data. Firstly, the researchers used the

audio recorder to record all the selected research

participants’ presentations. Secondly, while

recording the presentation, the researchers also took

the pictures in order to know the situation

surrounding and speakers’ expressions. Thirdly, the

researchers observed the situation when each

speaker presents their ideas in particular topics, and

doing note taking. Lastly, the researchers did deep

interview sections. The data were gained from those

selected research participants started from 26

April

- 11

May 2018 by using the audio recording and

field observations.

In collecting the data, some instruments were

employed. Those are: audio recorder, taking

pictures, observations, field notes, and interview.

Thus, the audio recorder was used to record the

utterances produced by all the selected research

participants when they present particular topics. Not

only that, it was also used to record the interview

sections to those selected research participants.

Whereas, the pictures were used to see the

expression and situation when the speakers produce

their utterances. While the observations and field

The Landscape of International Students’ Slips of the Tongue in Indonesian Contexts

notes were used to see directly how the setting and

surrounded conditions in international students’

utterances when they presented particular topics at

Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim

Malang. Furthermore, there are several steps that the

researchers used to analyse the data. Firstly, the

researchers analysed the data by doing coding and

categorizing then analyse the type of slips of the

tongue found in all selected research participants’

utterances based on theory proposed by Fromkin

(1973). After that, the researchers also analysed the

data by categorizing the possible conditions which

may influence slips of the tongue in all selected

research participants’ utterances based on theory

proposed by Clark and Clark (1977). Further, the

researchers discussed on the findings which are

derived from the research questions. Finally, the

conclusion was made in order to summarize the

findings and discussion of the research.

4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

After analysing the data which were transcribed

from the audio recording, the researchers found that

there were 127 slips of the tongue produced by the

international students who are from Libya (S1),

Somalia (S2), Sudan (S3), Cambodia (S4), China

(S5), and Thailand (S6). The result can be seen in

the table below.

Table 1: Data Result

TYPES

TOTAL

Anticipations

3 - - - - - 3

Preservations

- 1 3 - 1 1 6

Blends/

Haplologies

- - - - - - -

Misderivations/

Shifts

- - - - - - -

Substitutions

3 6

5 51

Additions

6 2 5 1 3 - 17

Deletions

8 3

4 48

Reversals/

Exchan

- 1 1 - - - 2

Total for each

Speaker

Total of the data

127

Furthermore, based on the findings, the types

that were occurred in their utterances were

anticipations, preservations, substitutions, additions,

deletions, and reversals/exchange. Whereas there

were two types of slips of the tongue which did not

occur in their utterances, those were blends/

haplologies and misderivations/shifts. In addition,

the most type of slip of the tongue occurred was

substitutions which was occurred 51 times. The most

slips of the tongue were produced by speaker 3 (S3)

who is from Sudan which has 40 slips. It was

influenced by the speaker’s background of the study

which is not in English education or letters

department, but Pharmacy. On the other hand, the

speaker who has a few slips is speaker 6 (S6) who is

from Thailand which has only 10 slips. It is because

the speaker’s background of the study is English

literature. Therefore, S6 uses English language in

daily communication more than other speakers

especially speaker 3 who, produced most slips.

Further, the researchers found that African

speakers; Libya (S1), Somalia (S2), and Sudan (S3)

produced more slips rather than Asian speakers;

Cambodia (S4), China (S5), and Thailand (S6).

African speakers produced 73 slips of the tongue in

total, whereas Asian speakers produced 54 slips of

the tongue. It is the fact that African speakers

seldom use English in their daily communications

even at school. They tend to use Arabic language in

order to communicate with others in public area or

school. In addition, the researchers found the fact

that the typology of slips of the tongue mostly

produced by African speakers was substitutions

which occurred 30 times in total. On the other hand,

the typology of slips of the tongue mostly produced

by Asian speakers was deletions which occurred 27

times in total.

Further, the possible factors which might

influence the speakers producing slips of the tongue

was mostly situational anxiety. Furthermore, such as

in the speaker 1 from Libya. In the interview section,

S1 told the researchers that S1 was tired and need

some sleep. Here is the S1’s utterance “For today, I

feel tired all the times. I need to sleep hehehe”.

Therefore, it might influence the speaker to produce

some slips when the speaker presented the particular

topics. It also happens to speaker 3 from Sudan.

When the researchers asked, “Do you have enough

sleep?”. S3 answered “No”. It is because S3 had

many homework to deal with. Furthermore, the same

situation happened to speaker 4 from Cambodia. S4

told the researchers in the interview section that S4

felt tired after playing futsal at the time. As well as

the speaker 5 from China. The speaker told the

ICRI 2018 - International Conference Recent Innovation

100

researchers that S5 was so tired because of the daily

routine in Ma’had and after hanging out of the town.

Figure 1: After having presentation from given

topics by using English language

In addition, different from those four speakers,

the possible factor or condition which might

influence the speaker to produce such slips of the

tongue in speaker 2 from Somalia and speaker 6

from Thailand, they said that they were not tired at

that time. For speaker 2, the possible factor or

condition was cognitive difficulty. Due to the fact

that the speaker takes long time to think when doing

the presentations. It seems like the speaker found it

difficult to choose proper word, therefore, there are

many pauses and hesitations in S2’s utterances.

Whereas for speaker 6, the possible factor or

conditions was social factor. In the interview

section, when the researchers asked about “Are you

having a problem in saying what is in your mind

when you are in front of lots of people?”. Then, the

speaker said that “Absolutely, for me myself I like to

write in English more than speak”. From that point,

the researchers found that S6 would probably have a

problem when presenting something in front because

S6 might feel under pressure. From those possible

factors or condition which might influence the

speakers to produce the slips of the tongue can be

conclude that all the speakers were facing different

problems and situation when the presentations take

place. Therefore, the types of slips of the tongue is

actually bounded or related one another with the

possible factors or conditions that made the speakers

produce slips of the tongue.

Figure 2: Interview Section with the Speakers

The discussions have shown that the selected

speakers produced 6 from 8 types slips of the tongue

based on the theory proposed by Fromkin (1973).

Those slips of the tongue happened due to some

factors or conditions which might influence the

selected speakers as proposed by Clark and Clark

(1977). Thus, this research showed that all factors

were found: 1) situational anxiety, 2) cognitive

difficulty, 3) social factor. Therefore, those two

research problems are related one another. In line

with Ovchinnikova and Pavlova (2017) who stated

that slips of the tongue and its factors are bounded in

order to represent the speakers’ condition or inner

context. In addition, understanding all types and the

possible factors or condition which might influence

the slips of the tongue is very important for the

second language learners. Due to the fact that they

are able to learn it and avoid to produce the same

errors on slips of the tongue.

5 CONCLUSIONS

The research reveals that the types of slips of the

tongue produced by international students when they

did the presentations were anticipations,

preservations, substitutions, additions, deletions, and

reversals/exchange. Whereas there were two types of

slips of the tongue which did not occur in their

The Landscape of International Students’ Slips of the Tongue in Indonesian Contexts

101

utterances, those were blends/haplologies and

misderivations/shifts. Further, the most type of slips

of the tongue occurred was substitutions which was

occurred 51 times. The researchers also found the

fact that African speakers who are from Libya (S1),

Somalia (S2), and Sudan (S3) produced more slips

of the tongue rather than Asian speakers who are

from Cambodia (S4), China (S5), and Thailand (S6).

African speakers produced 73 slips of the tongue in

total, whereas Asian speakers produced 54 slips of

the tongue. It is because African speakers tend to use

Arabic language in their daily interaction even at

collage or Ma’had. In addition, the researchers found

the fact that the typology of slips of the tongue

mostly produced by African speakers was

substitutions which occurred 30 times in total. On

the other hand, the typology of slips of the tongue

mostly produced by Asian speakers was deletions

which occurred 27 times in total. Furthermore, the

most possible factor which might influence slips of

the tongue in international students’ utterances was

situational anxiety. Due to the fact that they felt tired

because of their activities and assignments. Thus, it

might influence them to produce such slips of the

tongue when they presented particular topics by

using English as second language.

Since this research put the focus on slips of the

tongue in international students’ utterances who

presented particular topics by using English

language, the researchers suggest that the second

language learners especially English learners to

concern more on slips of the tongue in order to avoid

it when they need to have presentations. Thus, they

will be able to improve their English, especially on

speaking skills. Further, the researcher also has some

suggestions to the other researchers who are

interested in having research on slips of the tongue.

The next researchers are suggested to gain more

literature about slips of the tongue from different

experts’ perspectives and put the focus on slips of

the tongue on teacher or lecturer in classroom

teaching. Thus, the result of the research later on

would be comparable. Furthermore, the next

researchers are also suggested to fill in the gaps on

what are the possible strategies to overcome the slips

of the tongue.

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