Increasing the Economic Value from Digitalisation

through Eye-tracking

Juergen Bluhm

and Dirk W. Rudolph

Department of Tourism Management, Munich University, Schachenmeierstr 35, 80636 Munich, Germany

Data Analysis Department, BiSigma, Leo-Wohleb-Str. 6, 79098 Freiburg, Germany

Keywords: Digitalisation, Eye-tracking, Human-Computer Interaction (HCI), Human-Machine Interaction (HMI),

Usability/UX, Conversion Rate Optimisation, Emotion Measurement, Attention Measurement, Virtual

Reality (VR), Augmented Reality (AR), Ambient Assisted Living (AAL), e-Health, Autonomous Driving,

Improving Productivity of Employees, e-Commerce, Products and Services.

Abstract: The objective of this position paper is to demonstrate that eye-tracking is a cross-sectional technology for

digitalisation because it provides a bridge between “machines” on the one hand, i.e. computers, networks,

robots, and other man-made results of digitalisation like web pages, and humans on the other hand, who

interact with them. Eye-tracking is utilised at the interface between the human and the technology side of

digitalisation and it is exactly at that interface, where technological innovations translate into economic values

through productivity gains, increased sales, higher realised prices, improved customer satisfaction, fewer

litigation cases, longer lasting customer relationships and thereby increased lifetime customer value, more

profitable management decisions and improved shareholder trust. Unfortunately, numerous frictions between

“machines” and humans exist at these interfaces. Over the last decades, scientists have refined methods and

invented tools to detect those frictions, reflected in visual perception: eye-tracking. While the causes of these

frictions are countless, eye-tracking is a single scientific method for detecting very many of them. Eye-

tracking – so to speak – is “digitalisation’s best friend”. Because of the numerous applications eye-tracking

provides for reducing these frictions at the human-machine interface, users pursuing a digitalisation strategy

should become aware of the financial benefits by using this scientific method in their applied research and

development.

1 INTRODUCTION

Digitalisation means different things to different

people. For IT-developers and quantitatively

educated professionals, for instance, digitalisation is

a blessing. It increases the demand for their human

capital manifold. In contrast, for those who have

invested their human capital in fields of work that

now become obsolete, digitalisation is a curse.

For example, thousands of university students

have invested their human capital in foreign

languages and earn their living as professional

translators. Germany has a particularly high demand

for translations between various languages and

German. Professional translators were convinced

they were enjoying a high degree of job security

because they always believed the German language to

be so difficult, no computer could ever take over their

jobs. Well, a start-up from Cologne – DeepL – simply

disproved their claim.

The quality of this “translation machine”,

the languages it covers than Google Translate.

Certainly, there are applications, where you cannot

substitute human translations with DeepL. In law,

each and every word matters, and a single ambiguity

or imprecision can have very severe consequences. A

qualified native speaker will always be required for

proofreading automated translations for such

applications. Therefore, it is by no means clear,

whether the total demand for human translation

services will increase or decrease as a result of such

automated translations, because they radically reduce

the costs of translations and thereby enlarge the

market for proofreading in many ways. Outside the

legal profession, problems with readability, which

can be detected by eye-tracking, might impede the

attention of readers, a friction that is especially costly

Bluhm, J. and Rudolph, D.

Increasing the Economic Value from Digitalisation through Eye-tracking.

DOI: 10.5220/0008364001990205

In Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Computer-Human Interaction Research and Applications (CHIRA 2019), pages 199-205

ISBN: 978-989-758-376-6

199

in B2B marketing.

As this example shows, digitalisation affects the

productivity of existing human capital, the need for

human capital investments, and the optimal mix of

labour and capital. And this is true for a very large

array of already existing fields of work. This is the

human side of digitalisation that comes to mind in

most employees, who earn their living in these

existing fields of work. It is the narrow focus of

existing fields of work that Frey and Osborne

take in

their working paper.

Yet the human side of digitalisation has many

more dimensions than its impact on existing fields of

work and the human capital employed there.

Digitalisation creates many novel fields of work. It

changes the productivity of employees, creates new

products and services for consumers, customers or

patients, it improves the quality and economic value

of existing products and services, and it enlarges the

type of knowledge that is teachable for certain types

of content.

These are applications, where eye-tracking has

been contributing to the long-run success of

digitalisation and will continue to do so

. All

applications will either affect us as employees, as

customers, as entrepreneurs, as self-employed

professionals or as learners and students:

I. Improving the productivity of employees

II. Improving the profitability of e-commerce

III. Creating new products and services

IV. Improving the quality and economic value of

existing products and services

V. Creating new opportunities for entrepreneurship

and the self-employed

VI. Enlarging and improving the type of knowledge

that can be taught

While eye-tracking is a highly specialised academic

field, as compared to other academic fields, figure 1

shows it has been growing steadily. The growth of the

field is not only a result of its use in various academic

fields. On www.eye-tracking-education.com we

mention over 40 different academic disciplines,

where eye-tracking is being used for research.

Moreover, this growth is also due to eye-tracking’s

contribution to very many business functions that

significantly benefit from using eye-tracking. We

describe about a dozen different business functions in

Frey, Carl Benedikt and Osborne, Michael A., 2013. The

Future of Employment: How Susceptible are Jobs to

Computerization?, Department of Engineering Science,

University of Oxford, September 17, 2013

detail and there certainly will be more to come.

Figure 1: Research Output over time.

2 OBJECTIVES OF THE PAPER

The objective of this position paper is to demonstrate

that eye-tracking is a cross-sectional technology for

digitalisation because it provides a bridge between

“machines” on the one hand, i.e. computers,

networks, robots, and other man-made results of

digitalisation like web pages, and humans on the other

hand, who interact with them. Eye-tracking is utilised

at the interface between the human and the

technology side of digitalisation and it is exactly at

that interface, where technological innovations

translate into economic values through productivity

gains, increased sales, higher realised prices,

improved customer satisfaction, fewer litigation

cases, longer lasting customer relationships and

thereby increased lifetime customer value, more

profitable management decisions and improved

shareholder trust. Certainly, these benefits have a

price-tag. Important caveats of lubricating the

frictions of digitalisation through eye-tracking are the

facts that the application of this scientific method is

time consuming and requires highly qualified

professionals. Yet the return on human capital

investments for Eye-tracking for users, who are in the

process of digitising parts of their businesses, is

almost always much higher than one might expect

from the cost-benefit relation of the very first eye-

tracking project. Where do these additional returns of

investment come from? Eye-tracking is a cross-

sectional technology for digitalisation because with

this single scientific method all these frictions that

At the same time, eye-tracking itself is part of

digitalisation since it requires specialized software and

hardware equipment.

186

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12.000

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20.000

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CHIRA 2019 - 3rd International Conference on Computer-Human Interaction Research and Applications

200

arise and which are reflected in visual perception can

be reduced. Eye-tracking – so to speak – is

“digitalisation’s best friend”.

3 ADDED ECONOMIC VALUE

THROUGH THE APPLICATION

OF EYE-TRACKING

The following overview lists 22 applications, where

eye-tracking can increase the economic value of

digitalisation.

Improving the Productivity of Employees:

1. Optimised Human Computer Interaction (HCI)

with eye-tracking

→ improved productivity of employees

2. Meeting the usability challenges in medical

technology with improved HCI through eye-tracking

→ fewer litigation cases

3. Optimised Human Machine Interaction (HMI) with

eye-tracking

→ improved productivity of employees

4. e-Health: eye-control during surgeries via eye-

tracking

→ fewer infections, fewer litigation cases

5. Optimising the UX of data visualisations,

dashboards in business intelligence, infographics and

visualisations of law with eye-tracking

→ higher profits from improved business decisions

Improving the Profitability of e-Commerce:

6. Conversion Rate Optimisation (CRO) with eye-

tracking

→ higher volume of sales

7. Measuring emotional reactions in virtual home

staging with eye-tracking

→ higher volume of sales and/or premium prices

8. Measuring emotions and trust-building in e-

commerce with eye-tracking

→ higher volume of sales and increased customer

loyalty and life-time customer value

9. The death of banner ads: measuring the attention

gain of content marketing with eye-tracking

→ decrease of wasted marketing budget

10. Readability and the quality of artificial

intelligence translations (DeepL) with eye-tracking

→ higher volume of sales in international markets

(exports and domestic migrants)

11. Measuring the readability of online newspapers

with eye-tracking

→ higher volume of subscriptions and increased cus-

tomer loyalty and life-time customer value

12. Measuring attention paid to digital signages and

displays with eye-tracking

→ higher prices for digital signage and display ads

13. UX-design optimisation with eye-tracking

→ higher volume of sales and/or premium prices

Creating New Products and Services:

14. User interaction with virtual reality through eye-

tracking

→ higher volume of sales and/or premium prices

15. User interaction with augmented reality through

eye-tracking

→ higher volume of sales and/or premium prices

Improving the Quality and Economic Value of

Existing Products and Services:

16. Ageing and the independent living movement:

improving the usability of IT, AAL and assistive

technologies with eye-tracking

→ higher volume of sales and/or premium prices

because of user recommendations

17. Detecting distracted driving due to the use of

smartphones or fatigue with eye-tracking

→ fewer accidents

Creating

New Opportunities for

Entrepreneurship and the Self-employed:

18. Self-Publishing with WordPress: measuring

attention and readability of WordPress themes with

eye-tracking

→ higher economic value of the website

19. Online Mystery Shopping with eye-tracking

→ higher volume of sales and/or premium prices

because of improved competitive position

Enlarging and Improving the Type of Knowledge

that Human Beings and Algorithms Can Be

Taught:

20. e-Health: visual expertise extraction with eye-

tracking

→ fewer malpractice suits

21. Using driving simulators for extracting the visual

expertise in risk management with eye-tracking

→ fewer accidents

22. Eye-tracking for developing autonomous driving

algorithms

→ Model behaviour of self-driving cars

In this position paper we can only discuss two of these

applications in more detail: 1. Optimised Human

Computer Interaction (HCI) with eye-tracking and 2.

Meeting the usability challenges in medical

technology with improved HCI through Eye-tracking.

Increasing the Economic Value from Digitalisation through Eye-tracking

201

3.1 Optimised Human Computer

Interaction (HCI) with

Eye-tracking

3.1.1 Lessons from the past: The IT

Productivity Paradox

What is technically possible today and inspires the

imagination of researchers and investors often does

not lead to immediate economic success. The needs,

expectations, habits and routines that shape the

perception and decision-making of customers and

employees have not been adequately taken into

account when designing frictionless interfaces. Yet

this problem is anything but new.

More than 20 years ago, the discovery of the so-

called "IT productivity paradox" in economic

research attracted a lot of attention beyond academic

conferences. In a nutshell, the paradox means that

there was no empirical evidence of an increase in

productivity in the economy as a whole despite

billions of Euros in IT investments. How was this

possible? The improved productivity was precisely

the argument that the IT companies had so

convincingly presented. As a result, executives

provided enormous investment budgets worldwide to

realise these expected productivity gains, that

however did not materialise.

Landauer

showed the connection between the

lack of productivity increases and the inadequate

usability of software employed within companies. So

clearly frictions in digitalisation are anything but

new. In the past, low ranking employees had to

struggle with IT systems regardless of their

complaints about lack of usability, and their resulting

productivity was massively slowed down. Today,

poor usability designs in e-commerce annoy many

customers, who ultimately turn away resulting in low

conversion rates. Yet IT-developers continue to

blame users and refuse to acknowledge poor usability

of e-commerce systems they designed. Once again,

responsibilities are being turned upside down.

Landauer, Thomas K., 1996. The Trouble with Computers:

Usefulness, Usability, and Productivity, MIT Press, 1996.

Chapman, Merrill R., 2006. In Search of Stupidity: Over

Twenty Years of High Tech Marketing Disasters, 2nd Ed.,

Apress, 2006.

Strandvall, Tommy, 2009. Retrospective Think Aloud and

Eye Tracking - Comparing the value of different cues

when using the retrospective think aloud method in web

usability testing, September 2009 Whitepaper by Tobii

Technology.

Bojko, Agnieszka and Adamczyk, Kristin A., 2010. More

What Are the Economic and Financial

Consequences for Companies, Customers and

Employees?

Poorly designed human-computer interfaces:

- waste employees' working time, reduce their

productivity,

- create a variety of operational risks and

- reduce sales.

3.1.2 How Can Eye-tracking Reduce

Frictions at Human-Computer

Interfaces and Improve Economic and

Financial Performances?

Chapman

documents and analyses the gigantic

business failures strictly technology-centred views

can cause. If, however, a customer-centric view is

adopted, this typically receives positive customer

reviews and recommendations, thus enabling even

small and medium-sized companies to grow rapidly

despite low advertising budgets.

Adopting a customer-centric view is easier said

than done though. What is obvious and logical for IT-

developers might be counter-intuitive for non-IT-

specialists. Developers can become aware of this by

observing users in a structured, unbiased and

objective way with eye-tracking.

The main advantage of using eye-tracking is the

information gain compared to traditional UX studies,

relying on the so-called "Think Aloud" method.

Strandvall

, was able to determine improvements in

the information content of a usability study by

recording eye movements with the help of a

“Retrospective Think Aloud” (RTA).

Additional papers recommending eye-tracking for

UX studies are Bojko and Adamczyk

as well as

Email and Ahmad

by pointing out the distortions in

the acquisition of information when using the Think

Aloud methodology, especially in traditional,

strongly hierarchised societies.

One needs objective, quantitative data showing

usability problems when arguing with IT staff about

the need for improving their design. And indeed, it is

than Just Eye Candy - Top Ten Misconceptions about Eye

Tracking, User Experience, Volume 9, Issue 3, 3rd

Quarter 2010

Email, Ashok Sivaji and Ahmad, Wan Fatimah Wa, 2014.

Benefits of Complementing Eye-Tracking Analysis with

Think Aloud Protocol in a Multilingual Country with High

Power Distance (Hofstede’s), in: Horsley, Mike, Eliot,

Matt, Knight, Bruce Allen, and Reilly, Ronan, (eds.),

2014. Current Trends in Eye Tracking Research, pp. 267-

278, Springer International Publishing, 2014.

CHIRA 2019 - 3rd International Conference on Computer-Human Interaction Research and Applications

202

eye-tracking that can deliver such data.

3.2 Meeting the Usability Challenges in

Medical Technology with Improved

HCI through Eye-tracking

Poor usability of medical devices, which could result

in incorrect operating situations, can have extremely

serious health consequences for the patient. In the

worst-case scenario, patients can die because of

maloperation. It is hard to think of other cases, where

user-friendliness is as important as with medical

devices. These risks in the operating theatre lead to

more and more government regulations and a higher

number of malpractice suits, where hospitals and

medical technology companies are being sued for

millions of Euros.

Yet superior usability in medical technology is not

just an "annoying cost factor", but an important sales-

relevant marketing instrument. Easy to learn

operating skills is an important sales argument,

because it can be effectively demonstrated in

customer education or product training videos,

instead of hiding superior usability in voluminous

manuals or operating instructions that are difficult to

understand and which nobody has the time to read.

Also, effortless usability saves time, an important

sales argument in view of the shortage of personnel

and the work overload of nursing staff. Moreover,

high usability improves training time, thus reducing

the probability of claims against the medical

technology provider for damages arising from user

errors.

Furthermore, improved usability enlarges

markets. In the case of medical technology, good

usability effectively supports exports to countries

with low training standards for nursing staff. And in

OECD countries, health insurance providers pressure

hospitals to discharge patients from hospitals as

quickly as possible. For those medical devices that

can be taken home by patients, there is an economic

incentive to also use such devices for home care

applications. Of course, this requires particularly easy

and fool proof operating of these medical devices.

Cao, Y, Miura, S, Kobayashi, Y, Kawamura, K, Sugano,

S & Fujie, MG 2016, Pupil Variation Applied to the Eye

Tracking Control of an Endoscopic Manipulator, IEEE

Robotics and Automation Letters, vol. 1, no. 1, 7393466,

pp. 531-538. January 2016.

Email, Ashok Sivaji and Ahmad, Wan Fatimah Wa, 2014.

3.2.1 Why Is Eye-tracking so Useful for

Usability Studies Especially for

Medical Devices?

Over the last two decades, medical devices have

developed more and more into medical computers

where increased emphasis is being placed on visual

control elements. Touch screens are also used here as

well as eye-controlled devices (for example

communication devices for patients of Cerebral

Palsy, ALS, Autism, Spinal Cord Injury, Rett

Syndrome, Aphasia, etc. or control of an endoscopic

manipulator as discussed in Yang Cao et al.

However, users' expectations of effortless and

intuitive operability, which they are accustomed to

their smartphones, has increased, which means that

the findings of usability research in the field of

Human Computer Interaction (HCI) can also be

applied to such medical devices. Eye-tracking has

become one of the standard techniques for the

optimisation of usability in the field of HCI. And this

applied research method can generate objective,

quantitative data reflecting accurately the usability of

technology.

An important advantage of usability studies that

employ eye-tracking compared to the classical

method of usability studies - the so-called "Think

Aloud" method (TA) - is that problems of the TA

method, which can lead to a systematic falsification

of the actually documented operating problems, are

objectively avoided with eye-tracking. What are these

problems?

With the TA method, it is always assumed that the

test persons are not afraid to name any difficulties in

operating the device openly and completely. Such

answers, however, require a high degree of self-

confidence when using complicated and technically

demanding equipment. Technical understanding and

the necessary self-confidence are normally connected

with education. In the case of usability studies for

medical devices, test persons will be nursing staff

from the hospital sector. Especially in hospitals there

is a very strong inequality in education, the base for

their strong hierarchisation. A further complicating

factor is that a large proportion of nursing staff comes

from societies where authoritarian leadership is the

common rule rather the exception. As already

mentioned, the study by Email and Ahmad

drew

Benefits of Complementing Eye-Tracking Analysis with

Think Aloud Protocol in a Multilingual Country with High

Power Distance (Hofstede’s), in: Horsley, Mike, Eliot,

Matt, Knight, Bruce Allen, and Reilly, Ronan, (eds.), 2014.

Current Trends in Eye Tracking Research, pp. 267-278,

Springer International Publishing, 2014.

Increasing the Economic Value from Digitalisation through Eye-tracking

203

attention to this problem. They write on page 268:

“Due to the power distance that is already present in

the Malaysian culture, the user during the Think

Aloud (TA) process sees the moderator as a

supervisor and hence has a tendency to be afraid in

disagreeing in the effectiveness, efficiency and

satisfaction of degree of usability of a website under

test. This is one reason why Think Aloud (TA)

technique alone may not be suitable and reliable in

usability studies in Malaysia.” Aga Bojko

explains

in Chapter 6 of her book the advantages of RTA (or

retrospective verbal protocol), the main benefit being

that it has no impact on eye movements during the

task.

3.2.2 Eye-tracking for Medical Devices

under Realistic Working Conditions

With mobile eye-trackers, usability studies can now

also be carried out for medical devices that have to be

tested under realistic conditions, such as those

prevailing in the hospital environment. Stressful

situations increasing the cognitive workload

significantly are typical for real working conditions.

Eye-tracking allows the cognitive workload of test

persons to be measured objectively and over time and

leads to corresponding quantitative measurement data

that can later objectively prove the representativeness

of the study to third parties.

An example of a usability study for medical

devices using eye-tracking is the work of Spaeth, et

al.

, who carried out research on the user-friendliness

of four different anaesthesia and ventilation devices

at the University of Freiburg. The eye-tracking

analysis of their work has revealed that operating

problems limit work performance. According to the

users’ assessments of user-friendliness Dräger's

Perseus ventilator received the best rating. All in all,

this usability study, supported by eye-tracking, shows

that the user-friendliness of various ventilators differs

considerably and that operating problems limit the

efficiency in performing certain tasks. Eliminating

these problems will increase work performance and

thus patient safety.

Bojko, Aga,, 2013. Eye Tracking the User Experience: A

Practical Guide to Research, Rosenfeld Media, 2013

Spaeth, J., Schweizer, T., Schmutz, A., Buerkle, H. and

Schumann, S., 2017. Comparative usability of modern

anaesthesia ventilators: a human factors study, British

Journal of Anaesthesia, 3. October 2017.

4 CONCLUSIONS

Now, what is the main contribution of our position

paper? Applied eye-tracking research consumes

substantial financial resources because of the staff

training time required to come up with valid results.

Entrepreneurs, of course, care about the return on

their research investments, so they might prematurely

reach the conclusion, eye-tracking is just too

expensive. Yet their cost-benefit calculation is

flawed.

They implicitly assume that the human capital

investments for the training of their staff members,

who will be involved in conducting eye-tracking

studies, will yield financial gains for only one

application – the application they view as most

pressing, thus overlooking other possibilities.

Likewise, the attention of academic researchers is

also quite selective. They necessarily focus on a

single research question. Because of this selective

attention, it is widely overlooked that eye-tracking by

now has become a cross-sectional technology for

digitalisation. It is the objective of our position paper

to give a comprehensive overview of the vast array of

business applications, where eye-tracking can reduce

potential frictions of digitalisation projects. Through

our applied research we were able to identify 22

different applications so far, where decision-oriented

eye-tracking research can yield economic rewards for

users pursuing a digitalisation strategy with at least a

dozen financially rewarding applications.

A narrow focus on the benefits from just one or

two eye-tracking projects will grossly underestimate

the potential financial rewards for entrepreneurs. This

in turn will cause underinvestment in eye-tracking

related human capital, thus perpetuating frictions at

the human machine interface.

Ever since Kenneth J. Arrow’s article “The

Economic Implications of Learning by Doing”

learning has been identified as the main source of

economic growth, and the application of all these

scientific methods requires human capital

investments so that learning can take place.

Because of the numerous applications eye-

tracking provides for reducing the frictions at the

human-machine interface, users pursuing a

digitalisation strategy should become aware of the

Arrow, K.J., 1961. The Economic Implications of

Learning by Doing, Technical Report No. 101, December

7., 1961, prepared under Contract Nonr-225(50), (NR-47-

004) for Office of Naval Research, Institute for

Mathematical Studies in the Social Sciences, Applied

Mathematics and Statistics Laboratories, Stanford CA

1961.

CHIRA 2019 - 3rd International Conference on Computer-Human Interaction Research and Applications

204

financial benefits from the use of this scientific

method in their applied research and business models.

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