Integrity Values of Indonesian Nation Leaders as the Basis of
Anti-corruption Psychological Test Development
Muhammad Iqbal, Tia Rahmania, and Alfikalia
Universitas Paramadina
Keywords: Anti-corruption, culture, integrity, test development, values.
Abstract: Based on the fact that corruption is very detrimental to the people and the country, there needs to be a
countermeasure to suppress the level. The initial step was to develop a psychological instrument of integrity
and anti-corruption, which had been exemplified by the leaders of the Indonesian. This is done given the
importance of the individual role as the main predictor of corruptive behavior. Validity and reliability tests
are conducted to make sure that the instruments considered to be good and useful. The results of a total of 316
respondents, showed that the instrument was classified as valid in terms of content, criterion, and construct.
The instrument also considered being reliable from the aspect of the items' internal consistency. This research
is the cornerstone of test development using a cultural approach. Therefore, further research needs to be
continued by considering the variability of respondent demographics, culture theories, mediating and
moderating variables, and research methods.
1 INTRODUCTION
On average, one corruptor in Indonesia who has been
proven guilty by the court has caused a loss of Rp. 79
billion to the public, but they only replaced Rp. 9
billion or 11% of the losses due to corruption
committed (Wirotomo et al., 2016). Ironically until
now, even though corruption is devastating, the spirit
of anti-corruption displayed half-heartedly by State
Administrators. On May 21, 2019, the House of
Representative was recorded as the legislative
institution with the lowest level of wealth reporting
compliance (65.67%), even though the reporting
deadline through the State Administrators Assets
Report or Laporan Harta Kekayaan Penyelenggaran
Negara (LHKPN) since March 31, 2019; the next
order is judiciary (82.91%), executive (85.72%), and
state-owned company or BUMN / BUMD (93.82%)
(KPK, 2019). LHKPN is made to monitor the
increase in the wealth of State Administrators so that
it plays a dual role in terms of prevention and
enforcement of corruption (KPK, 2015). Thus, it is
very easy for the public to assume that State
Administrators who do not comply with the report,
potentially, have illegal wealth or corruptive
behavior.
This study aims to develop a psychological test
about integrity and anti-corruption based on the
integrity values of Indonesian nation leaders (KPK,
2014). Historically, someone who upholds integrity
values is close to the spirit and behavior of anti-
corruption. Empirically, there is a correlational
relationship between values and behavior (Bardi &
Schwartz, 2003). In line with that, practically, the
developed tests can also be used for several purposes,
such as job selection, promotion, training, and
development. If the tests are valid and reliable, then
integrity values serve as predictors of the corruption
emergence. Therefore, control can be done to reduce
the corruption level in an organization.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Corruption by State Administrators in any situation
cannot be justified. So that individual factors play a
major role in deciding whether he or she will display
- or not display - corruptive behavior. In the industrial
and organizational context, corruption is a
counterproductive performance from jobholders,
which is not expected by companies or organizations.
If it relies on a theoretical model that organization as
an open system (Cummings and Worley, 2014), the
Iqbal, M., Rahmania, T. and Alfikalia, .
Integrity Values of Indonesian Nation Leaders as the Basis of Anti-corruption Psychological Test Development.
DOI: 10.5220/0009401601670176
In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Anti-Corruption and Integrity (ICOACI 2019), pages 167-176
ISBN: 978-989-758-461-9
Copyright
c
 2020 by SCITEPRESS – Science and Technology Publications, Lda. All rights reserved
167

business environment will provide poor feedback on
corruption practices, thus threatening the survival of
the organization itself. For example, PT Pertamina
Energy Trading Ltd or Petral, which has long been
considered negative by the public because corruption
indication and dirty play of several elements in oil
imports, was officially dissolved by the government
(Pratomo, 2015).
Considering the importance of individual factors
as the main predictors of corruptive behavior, the
appropriate selection process of an organization's
members can anticipate corruption practices that are
detrimental to the wider community, and endanger
the survival of the organization. A good selection
process will reduce the chance of error: accepting
incompetent candidates (false positive), or rejecting
competent candidates (false negative) (Landy and
Conte, 2016). The competent candidates or
prospectives can be interpreted that he or she, as a
jobholder, has the opportunity to display instrumental
behaviors that can lead them to achieve work and
organizational goals.
In addition to having task-oriented performance,
jobholders also need to show performance that is
context-oriented. Examples such as the social
context, where the organization is a collection of
people so that they must help each other and work
well together to achieve the organizations' goals
(Smith, Organ and Near, 1983). Another example is
the context in which the organization is in a
demanding environment, so members of the
organization must be able to display adaptive
performance (Pulakos et al., 2000). Thus, the
jobholders must display anti-corruption behaviors as
contextual performance, where corruption practices
are considered detrimental to the wider community
and endanger the survival of the organization.
2.1 Corruption from a Cross-cultural
Psychology Perspective
Behavior is almost always the following attitude.
Considering that individual seeks consistency
between both so that the discrepancy creating
inconveniences in individual (Fabrigar et al., 2006).
People will display certain types of behavior that are
considered important to personal or social, or
following their attitude towards objects or situations,
or ideologies that are in line with it (Maio et al.,
2006).
From a psychology perspective, every individual
has the opportunity to display corruptive behavior.
However, corruptive behavior is classified as
unethical because it gives harmful effects to others,
and in moral and legal consideration, it cannot be
accepted by the wider community. Corruptive
behavior viewed from psychoanalysis is a defense
mechanism. From a behaviorist perspective,
corruptive behavior is the level of power abuse as a
function of several situational treatments. From one
of a mini theory of social cognitive perspective, moral
disengagement as the only direct determinant that
influences corruptive behavior (Abraham, Suleeman
and Takwin, 2018).
The anti-corruption test development in this study
rests on the assumption that behavior is a cultural
consequence. There are two reasons why this research
uses cultural theories. First, because cultural values
do not permit corruption practices. The example
illustrated in the teaching of Islam as a majority of
religion in Indonesia. In the authentic hadith of Imam
Muslim (Syarifuddin, 2010), Prophet Muhammad
said "Whoever among you we are assigned to a job,
then he or she hides from us a needle or more than
that, then it is ghulul (shackles or corruption asset)
that he or she will bring on the Day of Judgment ". In
line with that, in the Qur'an chapter Albaqarah verse
188, Allah says "And do not take the wealth of others
among you in vanity way, and do not take the matter
to the judge, so that you can take another part of
people possession with sin, even though you know it."
Thus, Islam views corruption as an act of sin that has
a very serious threat, because if you do not repent or
escape from punishment in the world, then that sin
will be brought and asked for responsibility in the
hereafter.
Other cultural values in Indonesia that do not
allow corruption are found in Sundanese literature.
As revealed by the archeologists-philologist
Ayatrohaedi that one must avoid unethical behavior
namely siwok cante (tempted by eating and drinking),
simur cante (join the actions of people who steal),
simar cante (take gold and silver merchandise without
the owner's order), and darma cante (help those who
are hated by the king or ruler); it is to avoid pancagati
or five kinds of disease in the form of greed,
ignorance, crime, obscurity, and arrogance
(Djasepudin, 2010). Furthermore, cultural values in
Indonesia that do not allow corruption are found in
Bugis, Makassar, Mandar, and Toraja ethnic. Siri’na
pacce means shame (because of self-esteem) and
poignant (because it has a sense of solidarity and
mutual assistance). In siri'na pacce there are four
values of integrity, namely self-actualization, shame
and guilt, loyalty, and honesty; as a whole has
negative, linear, and significant correlation with
corruptive behavior (Rusdi & Prasetyaningrum,
2015).
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Very likely, there are other cultural values than
above, which do not allow corruption practice. This
is because Indonesia has 7 religious and 31 ethnic
groups (Na'im & Syaputra, 2011). However, it is also
possible some moral systems or priorities differ from
one cultural group to another. In this situation,
according to Magnis-Suseno, moral system
differences in social and cultural obtained from the
research by anthropologists, ethnologists, and
historians can not force us to reject the universality of
human morality. There is also a utilitarianism view
that beliefs about the ideal order of society or
government are those who can provide the best
goodness or happiness of others to the widest extent
(Hergenhahn and Henley, 2013). The principle of
justice, kindness, and intellectuality seem to be
valued in all social strata of people throughout the
world. Thus, using the label "culture of corruption" or
"corruption has become a culture" is an incorrect
term, because corruption is not justified culturally.
Corruptive behavior seems to depend on the
opportunity for individuals to learn cultural wisdom.
The second reason why this study uses a cultural
proposition is that integrity tests developed on
personality-based and overt-based, show a very small
degree of correlation with counterproductive work
behavior (Van Iddekinge et al., 2012). Thus, further
integrity test development needs other alternative
theories, in this case, using a cultural approach.
2.2 Culture & Values
Culture is the common view or understanding of a
group on an object or situation. The researcher
divides culture into two layers: the outer (e.g.,
material symbols, artifacts, and language) and the
inner (e.g., beliefs, values, tradition) (Chung, 2019).
The two layers contain information that can be
learned by individuals in a cultural group and passed
down from generation to generation. This research
focuses on values theories as one important
component of culture.
Maio et al. (2006) describe the close relationship
between ideology, attitudes, and values. The three
variables differ at the abstract level in an individual.
People can have attitudes on concrete objects (e.g.,
money and goods) or abstract issues (e.g., laws and
social norms). Values have more abstract
characteristics, such as freedom, equality, and
transparency. While ideology has the most abstract
level because it consists of a collection of values and
individual attitudes. For example, the individual with
liberal ideology value freedom and helpful, but tend
to be negative towards censorship and presidential
threshold. In the end, ideology, attitudes, and values
rely on three basic elements: beliefs, feelings, and
past behavior.
According to Maio et al. (2006), there are three
theories about values that get wide attention among
social researchers and support other research that is
relevant to these topics. They are Inglehart, Rokeach,
and Schwartz.
Inglehart used psychological and sociological
perspectives in developing his theory of values. His
psychological perspective influenced by Maslow's
hierarchy of needs that humans have basic needs such
as food, safety, and a higher level of needs such as a
sense of belonging in a group, being respected, and
self-actualization. From his sociological perspective,
Inglehart argues that people who live in the west
experience changes in perception about life.
Economic and welfare growth makes people less
obsessed with materialistic needs, such as physical
protection and economic security. More attention is
given to postmaterialistic needs such as freedom, self-
expression, and quality of life. Inglehart and
colleagues showed that those who born before World
War 2 are more attached to materialistic values than
those who born after the war. Other findings that
people who rank higher on postmaterialistic values
agreed more on socially-oriented programs such as
justice for women in the work environment, human
rights, and participation in petitions on certain issues.
According to Rokeach, values are persisted
beliefs in individuals that certain specific ways or the
final condition of their existence as human beings are
valued both personally and socially. Based on this
definition, there are several important features of
Rokeach's theory of values. First, that values in
individuals can be different from values in societies.
Someone could believe that helping is part of his or
her life, but the values in society do not pay too much
attention to helping others. Second, values are
relatively stable; even people are taught to believe in
something without many questions. However, it can
also change when an individual learns to make
decisions by considering more important ones than
other values. So, although values have stability, it
still has little potential to change. Finally, a specific
way of behaving will lead individuals to ideal values
that describe the final condition of their existence.
Rokeach labeled the term instrumental values to
describe a specific way of behaving by individual,
and terminal values for ideal state or goals. Thus, the
instrumental value is a means to achieve terminal
values. Examples of instrumental values are helper,
full of love, and loyalty, as a way to terminal values
such as pleasant life, beautiful life, and wisdom.
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Almost all of Rokeach's principles of values were
agreed upon by Schwartz. Schwartz's theoretical
model is congruent with the principles of stability and
centrality proposed by Rokeach. Correspondingly,
Schwartz also acknowledged that values could be
tested and measured personally and socially.
However, Schwartz developed his theory and
proposed a unique typology of values, which is a
universal requirement for human existence (Schwartz
and Boehnke, 2004).
Table 1: Schwart’s Values
Values Examples
Power Social power, authority, wealth
Achievement Successful, capable, ambitious,
influential
Hedonism Pleasure, enjoying life
Stimulation Daring, a varied life, an exciting life
Self-
Direction
Creativity, freedom, independent,
curious, choosing own goals
Universalism Broadminded, wisdom, social justice,
equality, a world at peace, a world of
beauty, unity with nature, protecting the
environment
Benevolence Helpful, honest, forgiving, loyal,
responsible
Tradition Humble, accepting my portion in life,
devout, respect for tradition, moderate
Conformity Politeness, obedient, self-discipline,
honoring parents and elders
Security Family security, national security,
social order, clean, reciprocation of
favors
The effect of corruption, which has been very
detrimental to the wider community and the state, as
well as high expectations for integrity in the State
Administrators, shows the important aspects of social
justice. If we look at Schwartz's theory of values, the
social justice theme is included in the Universalism
dimension. Therefore, the authors assume that
integrity values are in the universalism domain,
according to Schwartz. Individuals with an intense
universalism will prioritize tolerance and protection
of other's welfare and the surrounding environment.
Historically, values have been shown to correlate
with behavior. Indonesia once had national figures
with high integrity as reflected in their struggle,
discipline, honesty, dedication, and anti-corruption.
They choose a simple way of life, not because of
incapability, but they focus on the people's mandate
rather than enriching themselves. Based on national
figures exemplary, KPK (2014) formulated nine anti-
corruption values or also known as nine integrity
values. These values can be used as benchmarks for
evaluating State Administrator. In other words, those
with high integrity values have a low chance of doing
corruption.
Table 2: KPK’s nine values of integrity
Values Definitions
Honest Upright, not lying, not cheating
Care Heeding, notice, regard
Independent Not depending on others
Discipline Obey the rules, both written and
unwritten
Responsible Ready to bear consequences of
committed acts, not laying the
blame
Hard work Persistent and focused on doing
something, not carelessly
Fair Unpretentious, not excessive
Brave Steady and confident, not afraid to
face danger, difficulties, and so on
Righteous Rightly, not arbitrary
KPK (2014) equates integrity with anti-
corruption. This creates confusion because both have
different definitions. Anti-corruption means
disagreement, dislike, or displeasure with the misuse
of the job's mandate or responsibility carried out by
jobholders for certain personal or group benefits. This
definition can also change following the
psychological entity to be discussed, whether values,
attitudes, perceptions, or behaviors. Furthermore,
KPK (2014) does not explain the definition of
integrity. Integrity means quality, character, or
condition that shows a unified whole so that it has the
potential and ability to emit authority; it also has close
meaning to honesty (Kementerian Pendidikan dan
Kebudayaan Republik Indonesia, 2019).
To eliminate confusion, this study takes the
position that what is described in KPK (2014) is the
values of integrity: abstract ideals that are believed as
a whole by individuals about the best behavior
guidelines in their lives and also emit the quality of
authority towards his or her environments. Historical
factors that illustrate the relationship between
integrity and anti-corruption, as well as expert notion
about the relationship between values and attitudes,
then, the anti-corruption entity in this study is
attitude: the level of agreement on individuals about
the poor misuse of the job’s mandate or responsibility
carried out by job holders for certain personal or
group benefits.
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Table 3: Conceptual definitions of values, attitudes, &
behavior
Topics Definitions
Integrity
values
Abstract ideals that are believed as a
whole by individuals about the best
behavior guidelines in their lives and also
emit the quality of authority towards his
or her environments
Integrity
behavior
Collection of authoritative actions that
represent the values of integrity in
individuals
Anti-
Corruption
attitude
The level of agreement on individuals
about the poor misuse of the job’s
mandate or responsibility carried out by
job holders for certain personal or group
benefits
The nine values of integrity are drawn from the
lives of twelve national figures who have different
professional backgrounds from journalists,
bureaucrats, politicians, police, prosecutor, to the
diplomat. The twelve national figures are Agus Salim,
Baharuddin Lopa, Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX,
Hoegeng Iman Santosa, Ki Hadjar Dewantara,
Mohammad Hatta, Mohammad Natsir, Saifuddin
Zuhri, Sjafruddin Prawiranegara, R. Soeprapto, Ir.
Soekarno, and Widodo Budidarmo. They actualize
integrity values through real behavior in the work
environment, statehood, and even the family. The
following table below illustrates the names of figures
and behavioral indicators that reflect integrity values.
Table 4: Integrity behavior example of Indonesian nation
leaders
Integrity
values
Behavioral Indicators
Honest Removed luxury items from the official
resident that were not included in the
office inventory list (Hoegeng Iman
Santoso)
Care Did not carry out political resistance
when deposed for fear of triggering a
civil war (Soekarno)
Independent Using public transportation with his
wife to attend the wedding of his
relatives (Baharudin Lopa)
Discipline Got angry and scolded his daughter for
receiving two gold bracelets from
strangers and told her to return them
(Soeprapto)
Responsible Legal processed his own child who
accidentally fired a firearm and hit his
driver to death (Widodo Budidarmo)
Hard work Making the palace as a fortress to hide
fighters who fought against the Dutch
(Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono IX)
Fair In contrast to other diplomats who
looked dapper, he only wore a suit with
a few stitches (Agus Salim)
Brave Arrested many times and exiled by the
colonial government because of his
great influence. Never stopped struggle
until he became the proclaimer figure of
Indonesian independence (Mohammad
Hatta)
Righteous Refuse brother-in-law's request to went
on a holy land pilgrimage (haji) through
the Ministry of Religion help (Saifuddin
Zuhri)
Based on this picture, values should be correlated
with behavior. Empirically, this is proven through
research conducted by (Bardi and Schwartz, 2003),
that values have a significant correlational
relationship with self-rating behavior. Nevertheless,
Maio et al. (2006) caution that the effects of values on
behavior tend to be weak. Therefore, researchers need
to consider the moderating effects that potentially
strengthen or weaken the relationship between the
two. Factors such as personality, situation, and values
quality, influence the relationship between values and
behavior.
3 RESEARCH METHOD
This research using correlational design to answer the
relationship between each item, dimensions, and
research variables. According to (Creswell and
Creswell, 2017), the correlational research design is a
procedure in a quantitative approach undertaken by
researchers to measure the degree of connectedness
between two or more variables using statistical
analysis. This level of connectedness is expressed in
numbers, which indicates the attachment of each
item, dimensions, and variables. The data of all
variables in this study were taken simultaneously in
one time, or in other words, the concurrent approach.
3.1 Research Participant
Participants in this research are individuals who are
actively working both in the profit-oriented
government sector (e.g., BUMN or BUMD) or non-
profit (e.g., service work units at the ministry or city
level), and in the profit-oriented and non-profit
private sector (e.g., NGO). The sample size in this
study requires a minimum of 300 participants. This is
taken by three considerations of the central limit
theorem, the statistical significance, and the factor
analysis sample size requirement.
Integrity Values of Indonesian Nation Leaders as the Basis of Anti-corruption Psychological Test Development
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3.2 Questionnaire Items
Three instruments in this study contain statements
and questions. The first is about the type and intensity
of integrity values. The second is integrity values in
the form of behavior. These two instruments were
developed and tested for their relationship following
what was done by Bardi and Schwartz (2003), testing
the correlation between values and behavior. The
third instrument is the attitude towards corruption.
The instrument needs to be developed and tested with
integrity values. This is according to Maio et al.
(2006), which concluded that there is a close
relationship between values and individual attitudes
and also, according to KPK (2014), which historically
illustrates the close relationship between integrity and
anti-corruption. The relationship between these three
instruments is also of the merit quality in terms of
validity.
The first instrument about type and intensity of
integrity values is called Nilai-Nilai Integritas
(hereinafter abbreviated as NNI). NNI is the nine
integrity values recommended by KPK (2014), which
is believed to inhibit corruptive behavior. Participants
were instructed to assign a value in each dimension
with seven scores range from 0 (contrary to the
principle of my belief) to 6 (the main principle in my
belief).
The second instrument is about values in the form
of behavior called Perilaku-Perilaku Integritas
(hereinafter abbreviated as PPI). PPI items are also
developed from the concept of KPK (2014). Each of
integrity values is developed into ten questions.
However, in contrast to Bardi and Schawrtz (2003),
PPI has a multiple-choice format with a score of 1 for
the correct answer and 0 for the wrong answer.
Correspondingly, there are response options as
deceivers in each number of PPI. This is a rational
choice to reduce the effect of socially desirable
responses (Paulhus, 1991).
The third instrument is Sikap Anti Korupsi
(hereinafter abbreviated as SAK). This instrument
was developed based on attitude theory, which is
assumed to have three main components: cognitive,
affective, and behavior (Breckler, 1984). Attitude is
the level of individual agreement that involves
aspects of evaluation, feelings, and actions towards a
particular object or situation. SAK divides corruption
into two types of theme: criminal acts of corruption
and corruptive behavior in the general work
environment. One component of attitude developed
into 10 statements consisting of five criminal acts of
corruption and five corruptive behavior in general.
Correspondingly, each statement contains seven
responses category ranging from: (1) strongly
disagree, (2) disagree, (3) somewhat disagree, (4)
neutral, (5) somewhat agree, (6) agree, (7) strongly
agree. Thus, SAK’s total score per dimension ranges
from 10 to 70.
3.3 Validity & Reliability
Price (2017) view that building evidence of validity
based on criteria and content contributes more
generally to construct validity. First, to avoid expert
subjectivity in assessing instruments, this study
adopted a technique for calculating the content
validity ratio (CVR) from Lawshe (1975), assuming
that a 50% agreement rate among experts can provide
a guarantee of the validity (Ayre and Scally, 2014).
Second, a correlational technique is used to measure
the relationship between variables in this study,
which also aims to test criterion validity. Last, a
statistical factor analysis approach is used to analyze
the construct validity. In psychometry, there are two-
factor analysis approaches, namely exploratory factor
analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis
(CFA). EFA can be used in the early stages of test
development, and CFA to confirm the theory used in
the study. Accordingly, EFA and CFA are two
activities in the construct validation process, where
EFA is first performed for scale development and
building the research variables construction, and CFA
is used in the next phase after the research variable
components and structure have been built on the
empirical basis of EFA. The EFA process in this
study follows the work carried out by (Field, 2017),
and the CFA process follows the works carried out by
(Brown, 2014).
The main issues in reliability are: (1) the
consistency or degree of similarity of at least two
scores in a set of items, and (2) the stability of at least
two scores in a set of items from time to time. Because
we use a concurrent approach in this study, the issue
of stability is not discussed, so it can be considered
for further research. Last, Cronbach's alpha
coefficient becomes an indicator to assess the
reliability of the instrument in this study.
4 RESULTS
This study consisted of 316 participants. The majority
of respondents based on gender are female as many
as 162 people (51.3%), ages 18 to 25 years old as
many as 190 people (60.1%), single status 221 people
(69.9%), bachelor degree total 168 people (53.2%),
work in companies profit-oriented private sector as
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many as 173 people (54.7%), the position level of
staff as many as 214 people (67.7%), the location of
work in Jakarta as many as 170 people (53.8%), with
the length of work between 1 to 5 years as many as
150 people (47.5%). The work industries are quite
spread out in several sectors. The top three including
57 people in service activities (18%), 41 people in the
education field (13%), and 32 people in construction
(10.1%). Finally, the highest number of respondents
was based on the monthly income level of 3 to 5
million rupiahs of 103 people (32.6%), and second
place of 1 to 3 million rupiahs of 67 people (21.2%).
Fourteen people were selected to become experts
in assessing the quality of items in each instrument.
Each consists of seven men and women. The
education they have taken is a master's degree in
psychology and human resource management majors
— the age range of fourteen expert panels from 30 to
41 years old. Based on the number of experts, a CVR
critical value of 0.571 was obtained. In other words,
a minimum of eleven experts should provide essential
values on each item. All items in the NNI and SAK
are considered essential by the expert panel, whereas
for PPI, six items are considered not essential by the
expert panel.
Research samples based on the Kaiser-Meyer-
Olkin test and the determinant matrix show good
quality data for EFA procedures. EFA's results depict
that NNI has only one component or factor, so it is
unidimensional. All NNI items are worth saving
based on the correlation matrix and corrected item-
total correlation; different results occur in PPI and
SAK where not all items can be kept. Based on these
results, the authors assume that PPI also has one
component, because each item in the instrument was
developed based on NNI. Thus, the EFA procedure
on PPI is done by forcibly extracting the proportion
of variance into just one dimension. The same is done
for SAK, on the pretext that there is already empirical
evidence based on previous research conducted by
Breckler (1984).
Table 5: Component matrix of each instrument
Instrument Range of variance
proportion (R2) from
component numbers
NNI no. 1 – 9 0.522 – 0.729 from a
single factor
PPI no. D2, D5, D10,
KK6, B3, B7, B10, A2,
A8, & A10
0.505 – 0.613 from a
single factor
SAK no. CA1, CA2,
CA5, AA1, AB3, AB5,
PA8, & PA9
0.668 – 0.914 from three
factors
The CFA results illustrate that each instrument
shows a fit model of several assessment indicators.
However, several indicators also show that the model
built is considered unsuitable. The good news is,
mostly, they indicate that the model of the
instruments is fit.
Table 6: Fit model of instruments
Fit indices Results
Chi-Square & df Reject all models
RMSEA Reject all models
ECVI Partial fit to all models
AIC & CAIC Not fit to all models
RMR All models are acceptable
GFI All models are fit
AGFI All models are fit
PGFI All models are sufficient
The external relationship between the variables in
this study is relatively weak. Even the relationship
between PPI and SAK's behavioral component was
considered insignificant. The partial correlation
between NNI and PPI is lower than the correlation
without involving SAK as a control variable.
Correspondingly, the R2 value for partial correlation
shows that NNI and PPI share the same 1.6% of the
variance, smaller than without SAK as a control
variable that is equal to 5.6%.
Table 7: Correlation of instruments
Correlation (r) Coefficient
NNI & PPI 0.236**
NNI & SAKtotal 0.358**
PPI & SAKtotal 0.349**
NNI & SAKcognitive 0.286**
NNI & SAKafective 0.338**
NNI & SAKbehavioral 0.226**
PPI & SAKcognitive 0.400**
PPI & SAKafective 0.281**
PPI & SAKbehavioral 0.100
R2 of NNI & PPI 0.056
Partial of NNI & PPI (SAK as control) 0.127
R2 for partial of NNI & PPI (SAK as
control)
0.016
The reliability of all instruments in this study is
acceptable, with a range of values between 0.690 to
0.825. It can be said that the chance of error in
measurements using this instrument is relatively
small. This is because all instruments have a good
internal consistency of items. Although SAK
affective component is worth 0.690, with the number
of questions only as many as 3 items, it is a satisfying
result.
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Table 8: Reliability of instruments
Instrument Cronbach’s alpha
NNI 0.825 of 9 items
PPI 0.746 of 10 items
SAKtotal 0.815 of 8 items
SAKcognitive 0.748 of 3 items
SAKafective 0.690 of 3 items
SAKbehavioral 0.742 of 2 items
Based on factor analysis and reliability testing,
whole items in the NNI were retained in this study.
Thus, NNI has a score range from 0 to 54. In contrast
to PPI and SAK, many items are deleted after the
procedures. In the end, PPI only had 10 items with a
score range from 0 to 10. For SAK, the total items
retained were 8 questions, with a score range from 8
to 56. Below are the descriptive statistics of the
instrument with the final items.
Table 9: Descriptive statistics
Instrument Mean & standard deviation
NNI 47.40; 5.10
PPI 5.96; 2.63
SAKtotal 46.97; 7.99
SAKcognitive 18.36; 3.98
SAKafective 17.56; 3.35
SAKbehavioral 11.05; 2.63
5 DISCUSSION
The results showed that NNI is a unidimensional
construct. This is making the position of integrity
values as if congruent with the domain of
universalism, according to Schwartz. However,
further investigation needs to be carried out, because
the final items in the PPI are nuanced about
discipline, hard work, brave, and righteous. While
independent, care, fair, honest, and responsible
excluded from PPI. This inconsistency raises the
question of whether these specific topics are likely to
be in another value domain. For example, responsible
in the nine values of integrity should be included in
the topic of responsibility in the benevolence domain,
according to Schwartz. Another example,
independent might enter in the domain of self-
direction.
The weak relationship between integrity values
and behavior proves the notion of Maio et al. (2006)
that the effect of values on behavior is relatively
weak. Thus, an investigation of the moderating
factors that weaken the relationship between the two
needs to be studied further. The results also show that
integrity tests developed based on a cultural approach
have similarities with integrity tests developed on
personality-based and overt-based. Therefore, from a
practical point of view, NNI does not need to be used
for selection, promotion, or training tests. Seeing the
weak relationship with PPI, there is a great chance for
the candidates to overly claim every score in the NNI.
Preferably, PPI is used for these needs.
Maio et al. (2006) also recommended that value
quality influences the relationship between values
and behavior. Related to Rokeach's theory of values,
integrity may not be an ideal state of individuals. In
other words, integrity is an instrument to achieve
more ideal values such as social justice, wisdom, or
equality. That is, the possibility to classify
instrumental and terminal values can be achieved by
testing the degree of correlation between values and
behavior. A strong level of correlation may indicate a
more ideal of value quality. On the contrary, a weak
correlation may indicate that the value is classified as
instrumental.
A significant but weak relationship between
integrity and anti-corruption shows that both are
unique themes. In line with that, a partial correlation
result also shows that SAK did not give enough
influence among NII and PPI relationships. Another
strong evidence is that integrity and anti-corruption
behavior did not have a significant correlation. This
might be evidence for KPK (2014) that integrity and
anti-corruption are different topics. However, a
question emerged, why have historically there been
figures with integrity who are very close to anti-
corruption behavior such as refusing bribery or
gratification? It also shows that both are likely to be
in the same domain of universalism, where integrity
and anti-corruption are motivational elements that
encourage individuals to realize social justice.
The variability of ages, income level, work sector,
and other demographic factors need to be obtained for
further test development. This is important to analyze
the uniqueness and universality of integrity and anti-
corruption based on participating groups of the
respondent. Another important thing that underlies
this is the difference in values based on the age
generation shown in Ingleheart's findings.
From the research methodology, a predictive
approach also needs to be considered for further
research. This is to obtain the relationship between
values and actual behavior. Behaviors in PPI and
SAK are behavioral items, meaning that those
behaviors are still tended to act.
Finally, although this study shows evidence of the
instrument’s validity and reliability, further
investigation needs to be considered using a more
modern approach. The test based on the respondent's
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response and social consequences may strengthen
validity evidence. Hence, reliability testing based on
the measurement stability from time to time is also
important to be considered in further studies.
6 CONCLUSION
This research is a cornerstone of the development of
psychological tests on integrity and anti-corruption
using a cultural perspective. The major results
showed that it is following the theory presented in the
study. However, consistent and focused research
efforts on the theme of anti-corruption need to be
continued, bearing in mind that corruption has
seriously afflicted the people and harmed the country.
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