Diatom and Geochemical Application Concept for Earthquake

Disaster Assessment in Lembang, West Java, Indonesia

Januar Ridwan

Research Center for Geotechnology of Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Bandung, Indonesia

Keywords: Diatom, Geochemical, Lembang Fault.

Abstract: The limitation of clear historical records of the past large earthquake from Lembang fault, West Java,

Indonesia, is making the geological records playing the role as the primary information sources. However,

weathering and bioturbation are very intensive in this tropical country, and high potentially destruct the

geological tracks of the fault on the outcrop. Sedimentation records in the tectonic lake and the other tectonic

basins could be the significant alternatives with better preservation. One of the best options for the study of

paleoseismology and its effects on the aquatic environment is the sag pond formed by fault movement. This

environment and resultant stratigraphy is directly influenced by the fault activity and associated with the

weathered profile as the marker of environmental changes. The deformation could be affecting the

accommodation space, water level fluctuation, and sedimentary flux, which influence the water chemistry.

The diatoms as the sensitive bio-indicator could respond to water level fluctuation and sedimentary flux. This

paper highlights and proposed the diatom and geochemical perspective to reveal the records of earthquake

movement based on the environmental change of sag pond sedimentation feature.

1 INTRODUCTION

The unavailability of a clear historical record of

Lembang fault activity causing the earthquake

assessment depends on the scientific research results.

However, they might be related to the records in the

available disaster catalogue (Harris & Major, 2016)

and scientific disaster database (Nguyen, et al., 2015).

The information about Lembang fault activity has

improved by Daryono et al (Daryono, et al., 2019)

which using the high-resolution remote sensing

database combine with conventional geological

observation and paleoseismological trenching. Their

research resulted from the precise location of

Lembang fault, geometry, kinematics, slip rate and

reoccurrence interval estimation.

The information of Lembang fault enriched with

geodetic research improvement. The geology

researchers have identified the existence of sag ponds

in Lembang fault area (Daryono, et al., 2019),

(Hidayat, et al., 2008), (Dam, MAC, 1994). Although

the existence of sag pond is also categorized as one of

the objects in paleoseismology study to provide the

recognizable deformation caused by the earthquakes

(in the form of deformed stratigraphic units, displaced

landforms, or earthquake-induced sedimentation),

there are still few types of research focused on sag

pond sediment are found in Indonesia. The

stratigraphy records could provide an option when the

paleoseismological study also depends on the

preservation of surface rupture, which could be

limited due to progressive erosion in Indonesia as a

tropical country (Daryono, 2016). This review

highlights the chance of diatom and geochemical

analysis applications to reveal the past great

earthquakes from Lembang fault sag pond records.

2 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

2.1 An Overview of Lembang Fault

Lembang fault is the active fault located in Lembang,

10 km northern part of Bandung, West Java (figure

3). The activity of the Lembang fault is undoubtful

after the earthquake from this fault occurred. For

example, several earthquakes have been reported in

2011, which triggered by this fault [(Sulaeman &

Hidayati, 2011), (Sulaeman, 2011)]. This fault is

associated with the Cimandiri fault (Irsyam, et al.,

2017), although the other researcher has a different

Ridwan, J.

Diatom and Geochemical Application Concept for Earthquake Disaster Assessment in Lembang, West Java, Indonesia.

DOI: 10.5220/0010791200003317

In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Science, Technology, and Environment (ICoSTE 2020) - Green Technology and Science to Face a New Century, pages 31-36

ISBN: 978-989-758-545-6

result (Madhya & Sanny, 2017). The origin of

Lembang fault is volcano-tectonic origin with normal

kinematics as the response of collapsing caldera after

Sunda Vulcano large eruption [(Van Bemmelen,

1949),(Tjia, 1968), (Dam MAC, 1996), (Nossin,

1996)]. Tjia (Tjia, 1968) identified the change of

kinematics movement from vertical to strike-slip,

which was confirmed by a recent study [(Meilano, et

al., 2012), (Afnimar, et al., 2015), (Daryono, et al.,

2019)].

Figure 1: Location of of Lembang Fault (Daryono, et al.,

2019).

Geodetic slip rate range from 2-13mm/yr (Abidin, et

al., 2009) and 6 mm/yr (Meilano, et al., 2012), and

geological slip rate estimation is 1.95- 3.45 mm/ yr

(Daryono, et al., 2019). Daryono et al, has suggested

this fault could be produced 6.5-7 mW earthquake

with reoccurrence interval 170-670 year with

comprehensive paleoseismology in Lembang fault.

They also identified at least three great earthquakes in

15th Century, 2300-60BC, and around 18000 BC and

mapped lithological in Lembang fault surrounding

area.

2.2 Sag Pond and Earthquake History

Assessment

Sag ponds are the low regime sedimentary

environment, form when divergent movement

associated with transtensional or extensional faulting

creates a topographic depression (example model and

sag pond in figure 1, and local hydrologic conditions

maintain water levels in the depression (Simpson, et

al., 2014). The existence of sag ponds is also

categorized as one of the objects in paleoseismology

study to provide the recognizable deformation caused

by the earthquakes (in the form of deformed

stratigraphic units, displaced landforms, or

earthquake-induced sedimentation) (Dam, MAC,

1994). The most improved study of sag pond

sediment is Lembang fault sag pond. It could be

related to the availability of High-resolution

geomorphological identification, which is very

powerful to determine the existence of sag ponds

even the land use has been changed. This review

highlights the chance of diatom and geochemical

analysis applications to reveal the past great

earthquakes from Lembang fault sag pond records.

The form should be completed and signed by one

author on behalf of all the other authors.

Figure 2: (Left) Tyson's Lagoon, the example of one sag

pond in the San Andreas fault zone, the fault line maks with

a red line (from Lienkaemper et al (Lienkaemper, 2002).

The cartoon model (right) shows sag pond development in

strike-slip fault zone (Dam, MAC, 1994).

The sag pond is suitable for preserving

paleoearthquake evidence because they are relatively

low-energy environments where sediments

accumulate episodically in thin strata, separated by

weathering profiles, organic soils, or peats. Sagpond

is one of the "Recurrence sites" which has the best

condition to preserve datable material for earthquake

events (Dam, MAC, 1994). Well stratified and thinly

bedded sediment of sag pond also noted as the

suitable object for high-resolution seismic reflection

(Zilberman, et al., 2005).

The example of the sag pond stratigraphy records

for earthquake events has been conducted by

Hubbert-Ferrari et al (Hubbert-Ferrari, 2012), with a

combination of sedimentology, isotope and

geochemical approach in Aşağıtepecik Lake, which

identified as a sag pond. They identify four sediment

records. Three confirm historical earthquakes related

to the North Anatolian Fault (NAF) and one as a local

earthquake (figure 3).

The map (upper right) of in Aşağıtepecik Lake

and its stratigraphy (left). The stratigraphy marker

unit 1 representing three historical earthquakes in

1939 (unit 1-SEQ-1), 1668 (unit 1-SEQ-2) and 1254

(unit 1-SEQ-4) related to the North Anatolian Fault

(NAF). Unit 1 in SEQ-3 is interpreted as the local

earthquake.

The sag pond stratigraphy was also studied for

Late Cretaceous normal fault in Utah to understand

local seismicity and surface rupture in the study area

ICoSTE 2020 - the International Conference on Science, Technology, and Environment (ICoSTE)

Figure 3. Composite picture from Hubbert-Ferrari et al

(Hubbert-Ferrari, 2012).

2.3 Previous Lembang Sagpond

Stratigraphy Research

The study of Lembang sag pond is significantly

correlated with the high-resolution LIDAR and

IFSAR imaging. Based on the analysis, several sag

basins have been identified in Lembang Fault

Segment. The sag pond is located in the basin area,

which consisted of lake sediment (figure 4).

Figure 4: Map of Lembang fault location and geological

formation along lembang fault area (upper).

The sag pond took place in the basin area which

consists of lake sediment (lowest). The geological

map is based on Daryono et al.(2019). Hidayat et al,

(2008) made some hand-bore drilling activity in

Cihideung and Cibereum sag ponds. They identified

the paleosoil layer and sag pond sediment

intercalation as the records of deepening and

shallowing processes related to the fault movement

(figure 5).

Figure 5: Stratigraphy of Cihideung (Hidayat, et al., 2008)

shows the intercalation of paleosoil layer, tuf and swamp

deposit, which could represent the shallowing and

deepening process in sag pond.

An unpublished master thesis from Sundari (Sundari,

2009) revealed at least nine pollen succession and

assuming seven of them indicating the earthquake

event. She used a palynological succession of the high

plant, aquatic, herbs and grass taxa to detect

vegetation changes related to the Lembang slip event

(Figure. 5).

Figure 5. Modified graph from Sundari (Sundari, 2009),

which only show four from five pollen type. The seven slip

events were identified as the significant change of

vegetation surrounding the sag pond area.

The large wood fragment depth in sag pond

stratigraphy (Hidayat, et al., 2008) could be the

stratigraphic marker representing some destructive

event in the past (red mark in figure 5). The

palynological signal study also represents the

environmental changes that are reflected by the

vegetational change in Cihideung Basin (Sundari,

2009). However, the slip event might be separated in

Diatom and Geochemical Application Concept for Earthquake Disaster Assessment in Lembang, West Java, Indonesia

more detail based on the whole sedimentary features,

which reflect the coseismic slip event (large

earthquake) or some smaller slip event in the

interseismic phase. Although this result could be a

beneficial clue, this result should be compared by

other methods which could improve the accuracy and

resolution. Suitable dating methods should complete

another thing because the seven reported slip events

could also include three major earthquakes by

Daryono et al.

2.4 Chance for Diatom and

Geochemical Approach

This paper offered the diatom and geochemical

perspectives comparable to environmental changes

study of sag pond area related to fault movement. The

diatom is one of the powerful bioindicators for

environmental change, especially in the aquatic

environment. They are slightly sensitive to water

level changes, which correlate with another change of

geochemical and physical parameters (Smol J P.

2008). In low water levels, the ratio of benthic taxa is

dominated by planktonic taxa. When the water level

is higher, the planktonic taxa could be

increased(Smol J P & Chuming B F, 2000). Some

correlation between eutrophication and diatom taxa to

infer the water level is also reported by Heinsalu et al

(Heinsalu, et al. 2008) in Estonian Lake. They saw

eutrophic taxa has a negative correlation to planktonic

taxa presentation. It is related to the higher nutrient

concentration in low water levels (Moss B, et al.,

2009). The change of pH is considered as the function

of water level change and controlling the diatom

colony. The acidophilic taxa could be increased in the

low-level water phase (Bunting M j, 1997) and

decreased with higher water level conditions,

accompanied with more alkalophylous taxa colony

(Krabbenhoft & Webster, 1995). The challenge of the

diatom approach is the limitation of datasets of

tropical diatom. Diatom is very applicable for

peatland environments [(Kienel, et all., 1999),

(Brigham & Swain, 2000)].

Another perspective is geochemical analysis. The

distinctive δ13C values of organic carbon and C/N

ratios of algal and land-plant tissues can be used

together to assess the sources of organic matter in the

lake sediments (Meyers, 2003). Generally, terrestrial

plants can be divided into C3, C4, and CAM types

according to their photosynthesis characteristics and

carbon atomicity. C3 plants have a δ13C value from -

40‰ to -20‰, while C4 plants have a δ13C value

varying between -19‰ and -9‰, with an average

range value of -27‰ and -12‰, respectively [(Smith

& Epstein, 1971), (Oleary, 1981)]. On the other hand,

lacustrine algae have an average δ13C value of -28‰

(Farquhar, et al., 1989). Based on C/N Ratio,

endogenous lower organisms like aquatic algae,

phytoplankton, and zooplankton have low C/N ratios

ranging between 4 and 10 submerged. FLoating

aquatic macrophytes or mixed sources of organic

matter have C/N ratios between 10 and 20, whereas

organic matter derived from exogenous terrestrial

plants have C/N ratios greater than 20 [(Meyers,

2003), (Pu Y, et al., 2013)]. The combination could

confirm the vegetational change in sag ponds with

higher resolution (Wang G, 2019). The results should

be bonded with suitable dating methods to result in

chronological interpretation. AMS radiocarbon

dating and luminescence dating are suitable for the

sag pond sediment (Dam, MAC, 1994). The high

organic material is suitable for radiocarbon dating,

including the large tree fragment in the strata.

Luminescence dating is applicable for fine grain size

material and volcanic material.

2.5 Challenges of the Offered

Perspective Application

The paleolimnology application for earthquake

assessment study in Sapanca Lake, Turkey (Shcwab,

et al., 2009), including the diatom parameter as

bioindicator to find the chemical flux of hydrothermal

fluids seepage from the fault and nutrients from

sediment. However, the diatom does not provide the

species succession, although they also indicate rapid

depositional processes in the strata and show the

nutrient change in the lake water. This study shows

that the diatom signal could have limitation and

should have considered the other paleolimnology

parameters. The other challenge faced for diatom

application is relevant datasets of diatom taxa and the

present condition of Lembang fault sag ponds almost

unpreserved from their original form. However, the

diatom analysis at a closer region could be

constructive. Rawa Danau, West Java, represents the

bog condition in Western Java which also changes

and represents water level change.

The palynology from Van der Kaars (Van der

Kaars, et al., 2001) in Rawa Danau could provide a

reference study for diatom and palynology in the bog

environment. Rawa Danau study, which used Lignin

Phenol Vegetation Index and Bulk organic carbon

analysis (Tareq, et al., 2004) to determine the

significant vegetation change (LPVI) in the mid-

Holocene, could be a reference for geochemical

analysis. However, Situ Lembang is not like a bog or

swamp that connects with peat deposits and explains

ICoSTE 2020 - the International Conference on Science, Technology, and Environment (ICoSTE)

the diatom explicitly. The water level change at this

shallow lake is represent by the benthic diatom

domination ratio from all phytoplankton colonies

(Sulastri, 2011).

3 CONCLUSION

The diatom and geochemical analysis is the

promising alternative method for enhancing previous

researches about the environmental changes of

Lembang fault Sagpond. However, the best approach

for diatom analysis should improve by the transfer

function in the existing sag pond for the best result.

The concept of the water level and diatom community

analogue based on the lake study might be wide open

to applying a similar approach to the tectonic lake

scale. The concept is not only applicable to the

preserved lake or swamp but also the paleolake.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks to my master program supervisor, Prof.

Noriko Hasebe and the chairman of Research Center

for Geotechnology, Dr. Eko Yulianto. for all support

and guidance, which very encourage the author to

complete this work.

REFERENCES

Abidin H Z, Andreas H, Kato T, Ito T, Milano I, Kimata F,

Natawidjaja D H, Harjono H, 2009, Crustal

Deformation Studies in Java (Indonesia) Using GPS:

Jurnal of Earthquake and Tsunami, Vol. 3, No. 2, 77-

88.

Afnimar, Yulianto E, Rasmid, 2015, Geological and

Tectonic Implication Obtained from First Seismic

Activity Investigation Around Lembang Fault,

Geoscience Letters, Vol. 2, No. 4.

Brigham R B, Swain P, 2000, Diatom Indicators of Peatland

Development at Pogonia Bog Pond, The Holocene, Vol.

10.

Bunting M J, Duthie H C, Campbell D R, Warner BG,

Turner L J. 1997. A paleoecological record of recent

Environmental Change at Big Creek Marsh, Long

Point, Lake Erie, Journal of Great Lakes Research,

Vol. 23.

Dam M A C., 1994, The Late Quaternary Evolution of The

Bandung Basin, West Java, Indonesia, Vrije

Universitet.

Dam M A C, Suparan P, Nossin J J, Voskuil, R P G A,

Group G, 1996, A Chronology for Geomorphological

Developments in the Greater Bandung Area, West-

Java, Indonesia, Journal of Southeast Asia Earth

Sciences, Vol.12, 101-115.

Daryono M R, 2016, Paleoseismology of Tropical

Indonesia (Cases Study In Sumatran Fault, Palukoro

Fault, And Lembang Fault), Dissertation, Bandung

Institute of Technology.

Daryono M R, Natawidjaja D H, Sapiie B, Cummins P,

2019, Earthquake Geology of the Lembang Fault, West

Java, Indonesia, Tectonophysics, Vol. 751, 180-191.

Farquhar G D, Ehleringer J R, Hubick K T, 1989, Carbon

Isotope Discrimination and Photosynthesis, Annual

Review of Plant Biology, Vol. 40, 503–537.

Harris R, Major J, 2016, Waves of Destruction in the East

Indies: the Wichmann Catalogue of Earthquakes and

Tsunami in the Indonesian Region from 1538 to 1877,

Geological Society London Special Publications, Vol.

441, No. 1.

P. R. & Milano, I. (eds), Geohazards in Indonesia: Earth

Science for Disaster Risk Reduction, The Geological

Society, Issue 441.

Heinsalu A, Luup H, Alliksaar T, No˜ges P, No˜ges T,

2008, Water Level Changes in a Large Shallow Lake as

Reﬂected by the Plankton: Periphyton-ratio of

Sedimentary Diatoms, Hydrobiologia, Issue 599, 23–

30.

Hidayat E, Brahmantyo B, Yulianto E, 2008, Analisis

Endapan Sagpond pada Sesar Lembang, Geoaplika,

Vol. 3, No. 3, 151-161.

Hubert-Ferrari A, Avsar U, El Ouahabi M, Lepoint G,

Martinez P, Fagel N, 2012, Paleoseismic Record

Obtained by Coring a Sag-pond Along the North

Anatolian Fault (Turkey), Annals of Geophysics, Vol.

55.

Irsyam M, Natawidjaja D H, Meilano I, Widiyantoro S,

Rudyanto A, Hidayati S, Triyoso W, Hanifa N R,

Djarwadi D, Sunarjito, 2017, Peta Sumber dan bahaya

gempa Indonesia tahun 2017, Pusat Studi Gempa

Nasional.

Kienel U, Sigert C, Hahne J, 1999, Late Quaternary

Palaeoenvironmental Reconstructions from a

Permafrost Sequence (North Siberian Lowland, SE

Taymyr Peninsula) – A Multidisciplinary Case Study,

Boreas, Vol. 28.

Krabbenhoft, D P, Webster K E, 1995, Transient

Hydrological Controls on the Chemistry of a Seepage

Lake, Water Resources Research, Vol. 31.

Lienkaemper J J, Dawson T E, Personius S F, Seitz G

G,Reidy L M, Schwartz D P, 2002, A Record of Large

Earthquakes on the Southern Hayward Fault for the

Past 500 Years, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of

America, Vol. 92, No. 7, 2637–2658.

Meilano I, Abidin H Z, Heri Andreas H, Gumilar I, Sarsito

D, Hanifa R, Rino, Harjono H, Kato T, Kimata F,

Fukuda Y, 2012, Slip Rate Estimation of the Lembang

Fault West Java from Geodetic Observation, Journal of

Disaster Research, Vol. 7, No. 1.

Meyers P A, 2003, Applications of Organic Geochemistry

to Paleolimnological Reconstructions: a Summary of

Examples from the Laurentian Great Lakes, Organic

Geochemistry, Vol. 34, Issue 2, 261–289.

Diatom and Geochemical Application Concept for Earthquake Disaster Assessment in Lembang, West Java, Indonesia

Moss B, Hering D, Green A J, Aidoud A, Becares E,

Beklioglu M, Bennion HBoix D, Brucet S,Carvalho L,

Clement B, 2009, Climate Change and the Future of

Freshwater Biodiversity in Europe: a Primer for Policy-

makers, Freshwater Reviews, Vol. 2, 103-130.

Nguyen N, Griffin J, Cipta A, Cummins P R, 2015,

Indonesia's Historical Earthquakes Modelled

Examples for Improving the National Hazard Map,

Geoscience Australia, Canberra.

Nossin J J, Voskuil R P G A, Dam R M C, 1996,

Geomorphologic Development of the Sunda Volcanic

Complex, West Java, Indonesia, ITC Journal, 157-165.

Oleary, M H, 1981, Carbon Isotope Fractionation in Plants,

Phytochemistry, Vol. 20, 553–567.

Pu Y, Nace T, Meyers P A, Zhang H C, Wang Y L, Zhang

C L L, Shao X H, 2013, Paleoclimate Changes of the

Last 1000 year on the Eastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau

Recorded by Elemental, Isotopic, and Molecular

Organic Matter Proxies in Sediment from Glacial Lake

Ximencuo, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,

Palaeoecology, Vol. 379, 39–53.

Schwab M J, Werner P, Dulski P, McGeed E, Nowaczykb

N R, Bertranda S, Leroya S A G, 2009, Paleolimnology

of Lake Sapanca and identification of Historic

Earthquake Signals, Northern Anatolian Fault Zone

(Turkey), Quaternary Science Reviews, Vol. 28.

Simpson E L, Koch R, Heness E A, Wizevich M C, Tindall

S E, Hilbert-Wolf H L, Golder K, Steullet A K, 2014,

Sedimentology and Paleontology of the Upper

Cretaceous Wahweap Formation sag ponds adjacent to

syndepositional normal faults, Grand Staircase-

Escalante National Monument, Utah, Cretaceous

Research, Vol. 50, 332-343.

Smith BN, Epstein S, 1971, Two Categories of 13C/12C

Ratio for Higher Plants, Plant Physiology, Vol. 47,

380–384.

Smol J P, 2008, A Review of Pollution of Lakes and Rivers:

A Paleoenvironmental Perspective” 2

Edition,

Blackwell Publishing.

Smol J P, Cumming B F, 2000, Tracking Long-term

Changes in Climate Using Algal Indicators in Lake

Sediments, Journal of Phycology, Vol. 36.

Sulaeman C, 2011, Laporan Tanggap Darurat Gempabumi

Muril M3 Tanggal 28 Agustus 2011, PVMBG – ESDM.

Sulaeman C, Hidayati S, 2011, Gempa Bumi Bandung 22

Juli 2011, Jurnal Lingkungan dan Bencana Geologi,

Vol. 2, No. 3, 185-190.

Sulastri, 2011, Perubahan Temporal Komposisi dan

Kelimpahan Fitoplankton Situ Lembang, LIMNOTEK,

Vol. 18, No. 1.

Sundari D, 2009, Rekaman Polen Terhadap Perubahan

Lingkungan Dalam Endapan Sagpond Patahan

Lembang, Unpublished Master Theses, Institut

Teknologi Bandung Program Studi Magister Teknik

Geologi.

Tareq S M, Tanaka N, Ohta K, 2004, Biomarker Signature

in Tropical Wetland: Lignin Phenol Vegetation Index

(LPVI) and Its Implications for Reconstructing the

Paleoenvironment, Science of the Total Environment,

Vol. 324, 91–103.

Tjia H D, 1968, The Lembang Fault, West Java, Geologie

En Mijnbouw, Vol. 47, No. 2, 126-130.

Van Bemmelen R, 1949, The Geology of Indonesia, The

Hague, Netherlands, Government Printing Office.

Van der Kaars S, Penny D, Tibby J, Dam R A C, Suparan

P, 2001, Late Quaternary Palaeoecology, Palynology

and Palaeolimnology of a Tropical Lowland Swamp:

Rawa Danau, West-Java, Indonesia,

Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology,

Vol. 171, 185-212.

Wang G, Wang Y, Wei Z, Hea W, Maa X, Suna Z, Xua L,

Gonga J, Wang Z, Pane Y, 2019, Paleoclimate Changes

of the Past 30 cal ka BP Inferred from Lipid Biomarkers

and Geochemical Records from Qionghai Lake, Journal

of Asian Earth Sciences, Vol. 172, 346–358.

Zilberman E, Amit R, Porat N, Enzel Y, Avner U, 2005,

Surface Ruptures Induced by the Devastating 1068 AD

Earthquake in the Southern Arava Valley, Dead Sea

Rift, Israel, Tectonophysics, Vol. 408, 79-99

ICoSTE 2020 - the International Conference on Science, Technology, and Environment (ICoSTE)