Constructive Cyberloafing: (How) Is It Possible?
Harlina Nurtjahjanti
1,2 a
, Rahmat Hidayat
1b
and Indrayanti
1c
1
Faculty of Psychology, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
2
Faculty of Psychology, Universitas Diponegoro, Semarang, Indonesia
Keywords: Cyberloafing, Deviant Behaviour, Positive Impacts.
Abstract: Cyberloafing is the behaviour of using workplace internet access during work hours uses unrelated to the
works specified by the organisation. Therefore, cyberloafing is considered a counterproductive work
behaviour. Cyberloafing has been studied with various scientific approaches. Different definitions and
terminologies with similar meanings of cyberloafing have been proposed. The inconsistency in the use of
terminologies referring to cyberloafing is because it is a construct that is multidimensional in nature.
However, these various views and terminologies have something in common, namely that cyberloafing is a
behaviour that is negative, or at least deconstructive, to the interests of workers and the achievement of
organisational goals. In line with some experts who view cyberloafing as a constructive behaviour, the
purpose of this study investigated the possibility that cyberloafing benefits individuals and organisations.
This research was a preliminary study that used the descriptive method. The study found that cyberloafing
leads to more positive than negative results, including relaxing, overcoming boredom, and increasing work
motivation. This research also showed that up to 90% of employees engage in social media activities,
followed by reading online newspapers. The implications for future research directions are discussed in this
paper.
a
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7203-423X
b
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1323-2914
c
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4955-1917
1 INTRODUCTION
Organisational behaviour is a cross-disciplinary
science that studies individual and group behaviour in
an organisational context. Most organisational
behaviour research is focused on the individual level,
primarily to examine the influence of culture and the
environment on individual behaviours. In general,
studies have been focused on positive-normative
behaviours, such as job satisfaction, closeness,
motivation, leadership, development and enrichment
rather than issues related to differences, violence,
exploitation, manipulation, sabotage and the like.
Against this trend, Weitz and Vardi (2004) state that
research that pays attention to positive-normative
behaviours has reached a saturation point. On the
other hand, according to (Kidwell & Martin, 2005),
there has been no construct that satisfactorily
describes the complex reality of work in organisa-
tions, including counterproductive work behaviours.
Organizational misbehaviour (OMB) is nothing
new. The research was started by Quinney in 1963,
who examined the effect of job structure on
employee criminal behaviour, followed by
Mangione and Quinn in 1975, who categorized
deviance into counterproductive deviance and doing
little on the job (Weitz & Vardi, 2004). OMB
research is organised to improve research on positive
behaviours in organisations that focuses on the
micro-level, and emphasizes positive-normative
individual behaviour patterns at work, and fails to
pay attention to the micro-level (person and job) of
unconventional organisational behaviour (Weitz &
Vardi, 2004). Finally, the context of OMB
encompasses all individual behaviours in the
organisational context which can ultimately increase
positive outcomes in work life.
This behaviour covers a spectrum from relatively
minor to very serious, ranging from breach of
contract, minor rudeness in the workplace,
Nurtjahjanti, H., Hidayat, R. and Indrayanti, .
Constructive Cyberloafing: (How) Is It Possible?.
DOI: 10.5220/0010830700003347
In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Psychological Studies (ICPsyche 2021), pages 327-338
ISBN: 978-989-758-580-7
Copyright
c
2022 by SCITEPRESS – Science and Technology Publications, Lda. All rights reserved
327
derogatory behaviour, workplace social
undermining, theft of company assets, destructive
actions to substance abuse and addiction at work
(Weitz & Vardi, 2004). OMB has become a major
topic in organisational behaviour research to
investigate how it affects performance at the
organisational level, group level and individual
level. This behaviour not only resulted in corporate
losses, such as losses due to theft in the United
States which reached $200 billion (Weitz & Vardi,
2007), but also resulted in a decrease in individual
performance (Uii, 2011). This topic has been
extensively researched in the last decade using the
terms dysfunctional behaviour (Griffin et al., 1998),
workplace deviance (Robinson & Bennet, 1995) and
counterproductive behaviour (Fox et al., 2001;
Capitano & Cunningham, 2018), and this behaviour
is found in employees at all levels of office, both
supervisory and managerial (Weitz & Vardi, 2004).
Various perspectives have been applied to
understand deviant behaviour in the workplace.
According to Robinson and Bennet (1995), one of
the deviant behaviours addressed to the organisation
is production deviance. This production deviation is
related to the minimum quality and quantity that
must be reached by employees (Agwa, 2017).
Examples include ignoring management
instructions, deliberately slowing down the work
cycle, arriving late, excessive sick attendance, petty
theft and not treating co-workers with respect
(Galperin & Burke, 2006). This behaviour is
considered counterproductive work behaviour
(CWB) at a minor level.
Included in deviant behaviour in the workplace is
technology-mediated abuse (Lim, 2002; Koay, 2018)
known as cyberloafing (Lim, 2002; Lim & Teo,
2005; Lim et al., 2002). Until now, there is still
inconsistency among researchers regarding the
construct of positive cyberloafing referred to as
constructive cyberloafing. We propose the definition
of constructive cyberloafing as an activity of using
the internet to complete tasks outside of work during
office hours, but the reason for doing so is to deal
with the organisational challenges in the future,
therefore, in this paper, we highlight the possibility
of developing this positive construct. Along with the
rapid development of information and
communication technology, the use of the internet in
the workplace is also increasing. Commonly,
organisations take advantage of this by providing
internet access with supporting tools such as desktop
computers, laptops and the like to improve the work
productivity of their employees. However, other
than offering benefits, the internet also opens the
way for the employees to do personal activities
unrelated to completing work, such as shopping,
chatting, browsing, and so on. In the last decade,
employee access to the internet has become
commonplace, employees may find it pleasurable to
use it for non-work-related purposes (Blanchard &
Henle, 2008), and this is referred to as cyberloafing.
Cyberloafing is a term used to describe the misuse of
the internet by employees in the workplace while
pretending to be doing legitimate work (Lim, 2002).
The development of technology is a necessity for
its users. Based on a survey released (APJII, 2020).
The development of devices to access the internet is
increasing rapidly, including Mobile Information
and Communication Technology (ICT) devices such
as smartphones. Based on data from Kominfo
(Ministry of Communication and Information), in
2021, the number of smartphone users reached 89%
of the total population of Indonesia, which is equal
to approximately 167 million people (Hanum, 2021).
In the workplace, employees engage in cyberloafing
by engaging in activities such as sending emails,
online shopping, social networking, and visiting
online media (Blanchard & Henle, 2008; Ugrin &
Pearson, 2008).
Loafing on the job has existed in organisations
since time immemorial, and the advent of the
internet leads cyberloafing to replace behaviours that
represented laziness in the past. The easiness to
access the internet seems to exacerbate the problem
of loafing in the workplace (Phillips & Reddie,
2007). Cyberloafing is a behaviour that is difficult to
monitor because individuals do so while sitting in a
chair or connected to a computer system (Lim,
2002). The internet makes the boundaries between
work life and personal life increasingly blurred and,
in a broad sense, individuals no longer separate the
two (Nolan & Weiss, 2002; Lim & Chen, 2012).
This phenomenon makes organisations lose as much
as $1 billion per year (Anandarajan et al., 2000). In
addition, cyberloafing results in loss of work
productivity, network congestion, vulnerability to
malware, and potential risks through legal
obligations and information security violations
(Restubog et al., 2011; Hu et al., 2011).
The concept of cyberloafing has a long historical
background. The increasing trend of cyberloafing in
the modern workplace has made it a problem for
organisations as too much time is wasted on non-
work-related online activities (Koay et al., 2017).
Many studies have investigated the reasons and
consequences. Cyberloafing behaviour is influenced
by various factors, including personality (Sheikh et
al., 2019), organisational roles (Moody, 2011), job
ICPsyche 2021 - International Conference on Psychological Studies
328
burnout (Aghaz & Sheikh, 2016), organisational
control (De-Lara et al., 2006), perceived
overqualification (Cheng, 2020), and internet
addiction (Chen et al., 2008). In addition,
cyberloafing activities can also trigger negative
emotions (Lim & Chen, 2012), decreased
performance (Baard et al., 2004), and reduced job
involvement (Liberman et al., 2011; O'Neill et al.,
2014). Although most research on cyberloafing has
concentrated on its negative consequences for
employees and organisations, research to explore its
positive potentials began by the end of the previous
decade. Accordingly, there exists a research gap in
terms of the reason and consequences of
cyberloafing. More specifically, this research is to
understand cyberloafing activity that may be
innocuous.
In recent years, researchers have shown that
cyberloafing has a “bright side” besides the dark
side of internet use (Anandarajan & Simmers, 2005),
recent research has focused on the positive
psychological aspects of personal internet use at
work, such as reducing stress and negative emotions
(Lim & Chen, 2012), providing preliminary
evidence that cyberloafing can serve as a way for
employees to cope with job stress. Several
researchers tested the relationship between
cyberloafing and variables of positive organisational
behaviours (POB) developed by Luthans (2002),
such as psychological capital (PsyCap), creativity,
job satisfaction, self-efficacy, emotional stability,
organisational citizenship behaviour, and other
positive capacities. Researchers also found that
employees engage in cyberloafing as a way to cope
with stressful working conditions (Blanchard &
Henle, 2008; Pindek et al., 2018). In the context of
the Transactional Stress Model, it is argued that
when employees are exposed to on-site aggression
(Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), cyberloafing acts as an
emotion-focused coping strategy, focusing on
regulating negative emotions in stressful situations
(Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Andel et al., 2019).
Internet access is a vehicle to increase employee
creativity. The internet has been reported to not only
enable sabotage activities but also enhance creativity
(Mastrangelo et al., 2006). Today, most
organisations demand a high level of creativity, but
on the other hand, organisations are also limiting the
way employees can get new perspectives by not
using the internet for activities outside of completing
tasks. It is considered a form of organisational
responsibility shift because the use of the internet for
non-work purposes known as constructive recreation
can equip employees to deal with difficult situations,
work long hours, or face future assignments that
require a broad perspective and increase confidence
in between team members (Oravec, 2002).
Previous researchers have tried to examine the
different consequences of cyberloafing to understand
the phenomenon. Cyberloafing was found to be
associated with an increase in employee knowledge
and skills (Simmer et al., 2008) and work-related
knowledge (Ivarsson & Larsson, 2011) and Cooker
(2013) showed a relationship between cyberloafing
and higher recovery rates (Coker, 2013), and more
commitment to future work (Syrek et al., 2017).
These positive potentials can help employees to
perform better in subsequent work-related tasks, as a
way to fulfil their personal needs during working
hours. It takes appropriate management to balance
the work and nonwork demands because the context
outside of work can substantially affect the emotions
and behaviour of employees at work (Koay et al.,
2017). The concept of cyberloafing from the positive
side, referred to as constructive cyberloafing, has
been studied by several researchers through the
following theories:
- The Social Exchange Theory (Gouldner, 1960;
Blau, 1964), explains that both organisations and
employees have unspecified obligations in social
exchange, but organisations and employees are
expected to conform to the norm of reciprocity in
carrying out their obligations in the future. This
theory is the basis for many cyberloafing
research. Organisational interventions that can
increase employees' intrinsic involvement, either
through job design, job analysis, or training
should reduce the employees’ likelihood to
engage in cyberloafing because workplace
deviance is an emotional response to low
intrinsic involvement (Robinson & Bennett,
1995).
- The Social Bonding Theory (Hirschi, 1969).
According to this theory, when people attach
themselves to groups with conventional moral
values, they are more likely to use their time
productively and are less likely to engage in
deviant actions (Hirschi, 1969). Furthermore,
Hollinger (1986) found that social bonding
resulted in conformity in the workplace, reducing
deviant behaviour. Previous research has argued
that individuals are more likely to engage in
cyberloafing if they are in a detrimental
environment and seek sources of stress relief or
entertainment (Lavoie & Pychyl, 2001;
Reinecke, 2009).
Constructive Cyberloafing: (How) Is It Possible?
329
- The Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 2002).
This theory has been widely used to explain how
cyberloafing activity is influenced by one's
environment (Weissenfeld et al., 2019). Previous
research has also consistently shown that
coworkers act as referrals for cyberloafing
(Askew et al., 2018; Leasure & Zhang, 2018).
- The Conservation of Resources (COR) theory
(Hobfoll, 1989). COR theory is known to have
been widely adopted in other research studies
related to cyberloafing. Employees attempt to
invest their resources (e.g. Psycap) as a coping
strategy against stressful conditions and avoid
negative situations, as well as to prevent
themselves from potential loss of resources
(Argawal & Avey, 2020).
- The Border Theory (Clark, 2000). This theory
postulates that humans are constantly switching
between work and non-work domains and try to
meet their needs from both domains proactively
(Clark, 2000). Employees who engage in such
circumstances have more personal demands and
are more likely to mitigate those needs by
cyberloafing during working hours to deal with
the transition from work to non-work domains
(Clark, 2000; Lim & Teo, 2005).
- The Theory of Interpersonal Behaviour (TIB)
was proposed by Triandis in 1977. This theory
explains the key role of habits and emotions in
shaping the intention to perform a behaviour
(Triandis, 1980). Koay (2018) shows the
moderating role of a constructive work
environment on cyberloafing because such an
environment provides unfavourable conditions
for the occurrence of deviant behaviours.
- The Motivation Theory from Kanfer and
Heggestad (1997). This theory argued that
personality traits are related to employee
performance through motivational intentions
related to goal setting. Employees direct their
attention, time, and energy to complete their
work and are not distracted by their emotional
state (Barrick et al., 2002). Further, awareness
and emotional stability can effectively predict
counterproductive behaviour (CWB), especially
cyberloafing (Kim et al., 2015).
- The Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) Theory.
Theoretically, the key in the JD-R model is that
job demands are primarily responsible for
burnout, and that job resources affect
enthusiasm. The results of a study using the JD-
R model found that job resources significantly
increased work engagement while reducing
cyberloafing behaviour (Elrehail, et al., 2021).
The summary of previous study reviewed the
antecedents used to constructively predict
cyberloafing as described in Table 1. It can be seen
that variables of positive organisational behaviours
(POB) are commonly used in explaining employee’s
cyberloafing behavior. Furthermore, this variables
also plays a decisive role in reducing cyberloafing,
achieved the organization's effectiveness and work-
life balance over the internet. Based on the
information above, we suspect that cyberloafing has
a constructive role. Therefore, this study examined
the activities carried out in cyberloafing and their
impact on employees’ emotions.
2 METHODS
In this descriptive study, we investigated the activity
and duration of cyberloafing in 30 subjects who
worked as employees of government agency X and
was analyzed using the frequency analysis method.
They were selected through convenience sampling.
The employees were chosen because their works
relate to the implementation of e-government
applications the completion of which requires them
to use the internet. This research collect the
quantitative data by using the close-ended
questionnaires. The questions are structured
referring to the scale compiled by Lim (2002) and
extended by Blanchard and Henle (2008).
Cyberloafing was measured with 9 questions,
including How much time do you usually spend in
one working day to run applications, including
social media or browse the internet for personal
purposes unrelated to work?”, “What are some
internet-based activities do you engage in for
personal purposes unrelated to work during working
hours?”, “How do you feel when you access the
internet for personal purposes unrelated to work?”
and “Do you think that running applications,
including social media, or browsing the internet for
personal purposes will reduce your performance?”.
Before the survey questionnaire was distributed, the
questionnaire was pre-tested on three employees to
get feedback for improving the questionnaire. A pre-
test is useful for improving the understanding of
questionnaire questions, ensuring a flow of coherent
questions, and establishing content validity (Bryman
& Bell, 2015).
ICPsyche 2021 - International Conference on Psychological Studies
330
Table 1: Antecedents and Theoretical Bases of Constructive Cyberloafing.
Authors Predictor (s)
Type of
Variable
Method Theory Findings
Restubog et al.
(2011)
Perceived
procedural
justice
Independent Survey
Social Exchange
Theory (Gouldner,
1960; Blau, 1964)
Procedural justice negatively correlates
with self-reported cyberloafing in
individuals with higher self-control.
Usman et al.
(2021)
LMX Moderator Survey
Social Exchange
Theory (Gouldner,
1960; Blau, 1964)
LMX moderates the negative
correlation between meaningful work
and cyberloafing
Etodike e al.
(2020)
Organizational
identification,
proactive work
b
ehaviour
Independent Survey
Social Exchange
Theory (Gouldner,
1960; Blau, 1964)
Cyberloafing negatively correlates with
organizational identification dan
proactive work behaviour
Nivedhitha &
A.K (2020)
Enterprise
social media
(e.g., profiles,
microblogs,
PDAs and
forums
)
Independent Survey
Theory of Social
Bonding (Hirschi,
1969)
Workplace social bonding mediates the
relationship of ESM and cyberslacking
Lukman &
Masood (2020)
Workplace
bonding
Independent
Survey Theory of Social
Bonding (Hirschi,
1969)
Workplace bonding negatively
correlates with cyberloafing
Lim & Chen
(2012)
Browsing,
Emailing
Independent Survey
COR Theory
(Hobfoll, 1989)
Browsing activities positively affect
work facilitation. Work facilitation, in
turn, affects job satisfaction and
or
g
anizational commitment
Mazidi et al.
(
2020
)
Job
embeddedness
Independent
Survey COR Theory
(
Hobfoll, 1989
)
Job embeddedness positively correlates
with c
y
berloafin
g
Argawal &
Avey (2020)
Psychology
Capital
s
Ca
Mediator Survey
COR Theory
(Hobfoll, 1989)
PsyCap partly mediates the positive
correlation between abusive
su
p
erviso
r
s and c
y
berloafin
g
Cheng (2018)
Harmonious
passion
Mediator Survey
Equity Theory
(Adams 1965;
Huseman et al.
1987
)
Harmonious passion mediates the
relationship of perceived overqualified
(POQ) and cyberloafing.
Koay et al.
(2017)
Privat demands Independent Survey
The Border Theory
(Clark, 2000).
Cyberloafing balances work and
p
ersonal lives border
Huma &
Hussain (2017)
Social factor,
Affect
Independent Survey
The Border Theory
(Clark, 2000).
Social factors and affect do not
influence the intention toward
cyberloafing behaviou
r
Elciyar &
Simsek (2021)
Norm, Role,
Self-concept
Independent
Mixed
research
TIB (Triandis,
1977)
Norms, roles, and self-concept
positively correlate with social factors.
Social factors positively influence
cyberloafing
Alshuaibi et al.
(2014)
Job Resources Independent
Theory
review
JDR Theory
(Bakker &
Demerouti, 2007)
Job resources (e.g., varied skills, task
identification, task significance, and
creativity) arise employees’ enthusiasm
and reduce their tendency to engage in
cyberloafing.
Kim et al.
(2015)
Conscientiousn
ess,
Emotional
stabilit
y
Independent Survey
Motivation Theory
(Kanfer &
Heggestad, 1997).
Conscientiousness and emotional
stability negatively correlate with
cyberloafing
Stoddart (2016) Mindfulness Moderator Survey
Social Cognitive
Theory (Bandura,
2002)
Together, cyberloafing and mindfulness
have been examined in parallel as
coping strategies.
Sanghangpour
et al. (2017)
Mastery goal
orientation
Mediator Survey
Social Cognitive
Theory (Bandura,
2002
)
Need for survival can predict
cyberloafing through mastery goal
orientation.
Constructive Cyberloafing: (How) Is It Possible?
331
3 RESULTS
Based on the analysis results of the questionnaire
given to 48 subjects and only 30 of which could be
analysed further, it was found that 53% of jobs are
completed using the internet, while 47% are not. The
demographic data of the subjects can be seen in
Table 2. The findings showed that personal devices,
namely smartphones, were more widely used to
engage in cyberloafing (77%) than office computers.
On average, employees use a smartphone to engage
in cyberloafing for 57 minutes per day.
Table 2: Demographic Statistics of the Sample (N=30).
Variable Item F % Variable Item F %
Gender
Male 18 60.00
Time spent
to cyberloaf
(mins)
≤ 30 15 50.00
Female 12 40.00 31– 60 8 26.67
Age
≤ 30 4 13.33 61–120 5 16.67
31–40 10 33.33 > 120 2 6.67
41–50 8 26.67
Tenure
1– 10 12 40.00
> 50 8 26.67 11–20 10 33.33
Level of
education
High school 5 16.67 21–30 7 23.33
Diploma 3 10.00 31–40 1 3.33
Bachelor 19 63.33
Electronic
devices
PC computers
7
23.33
Master 3 10.00 Smartphone 23 76.67
Types of
employee
Civil servant
(PNS)
21 70.00
Wireless
office
Have access 22
73.33
Contractual 8 26.67 No access 8 26.67
Permanent 1 3.33
Mobile
phone brands
Samsung 11 36.67
Marital
status
Unmarried 6 20.00
Vivo 4 13.33
Xiaomi 8 26.67
Married 24 80.00
Others 7 23.33
Figure 1: Types of Activities and Emotions Associated With Cyberloafing.
27
12
0
8
0
3
1
8
4
11
5
0
14
2
4
2
10
Social media
Online newspaper
E-commerce
Privat-email
E-banking
Downloading music
Personal website
Others application
Happy
Not bored
Harmoni
Worried
Work Enthusiasm
Afraid
Satisfied
Disturbed
Relax
Type of activity Type of emotion
ICPsyche 2021 - International Conference on Psychological Studies
332
The results (see Figure 1) indicated that
accessing social media (including WhatsApp, Line,
Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Telegram) is the
cyberloafing activity most employees engage in
(90%), followed by reading online newspapers
(including kumparan, detikcom, line today) (40%).
Some employees (27%) access various internet-
based applications, including YouTube (n=4),
hangouts (n=1), engage in online trading (n=1),
manage personal websites (n=1), and access other
applications (n =1). Our findings showed that
cyberloafing increases employee motivation (47%),
and no employee reported feeling anxious as an
effect of doing personal things unrelated to work
completion.
Another finding from the study reveals that
cyberloafing is commonplace in the workplace. The
majority of respondents stated that internet access is
provided (73%) with a strong internet connection
(64%), the use of which to access certain sites is
restricted (64%). Regarding the use of the office
internet facility, most of the employees stated that
the supervision of internet use for non-work
activities can reduce their performance (59%) and,
on the other hand, reduces cyberloafing activities
(63%).
4 DISCUSSION
The rapid technological development is
accompanied by the introduction of personal
electronic devices, including smartphones, where the
internet and telephone are integrated into a common
technical platform (Ivarsson et al., 2011) that allows
employees to surf the internet at work not limited to
a desk or office space. Employees are connected to
the internet all the time with personal electronic
devices they bring in their bags or pockets, and it has
changed the way they live and work. The trend of
using personal devices for work (Bring Your Own
Device/BYOD) in companies is considered to be
growing in line with the increase in mobile and
cloud computing technology (Bullock, 2019).
According to Sheikh et al. (2015), the trend of
smartphone use in cyberloafing behaviour is referred
to as "m-loafing". Understanding technology from a
positive perspective is a must for organisations in
influencing the adoption, diffusion, and use of new
technologies by employees within the organisation.
Li and Chung (2016) state that cyberloafing is a
multi-dimensional construct. Various approaches
and definitions have been proposed for non-work-
related internet use in organisations. Different
approaches have resulted in wide and inconsistent
use of terminologies, definitions, and labels
(Weatherbee, 2010). Various concepts and terms
have been used to describe this phenomenon, such as
cyberloafing, cyberslacking, cyberbludging, internet
addiction, and internet addiction disorder (Kim &
Bryne, 2011). These terms imply unproductive
internet use in the workplace (Ugrin et al, 2008).
However, several studies have recognized the
recreational use of the Internet in the workplace
which allows individuals to spend time outside the
demands of the workplace as well as a way to equip
them to face future tasks that require greater energy
(Oravec, 2002). Beugré and Kim (2006) stated that
when employees intend to escape from routine work
and to release anxiety, cyberloafing becomes a form
of constructive behaviour.
Cyberloafing research concentrates on two
perspectives, namely positive and negative
perspectives. This present research adds empirical
support to cyberloafing research in a positive
perspective, the results of which show that
cyberloafing activities produce more positive
emotions than negative emotions and thus relaxing,
overcoming boredom, and increasing work
motivation. Although previous research has mostly
examined the negative impact of cyberloafing, this
present study found that using company internet
resources for non-work purposes does have a
positive impact on individuals and jobs. Previous
research, by Coker (2013) supports the idea that
there is a relationship between cyberloafing and
higher rates of recovery, which in turn results in
positive emotions. This positive emotional impact is
in line with the results of research by Lim and Chen
(2012) that website browsing produces positive
emotions.
Interestingly, the study found that employees
spend an average of 57 minutes per workday for
cyberloafing. Previous research revealed minor
internet lapses with a low duration of about 15 to 30
minutes a day (Hartijasti, 2016), while other studies
reported that the time spent was about 51 minutes
per working day for cyberloafing (Lim & Chen,
2012). It seems that employees spend more and
more time on cyberloafing. Although the internet
has a positive impact by making individuals feel
more relaxed and increasing morale, for example, as
many as 77.2% of employees state that there is no
supervision in its use.
Thus, further research is needed to investigate
whether supervision of internet use can reduce the
negative impact of cyberloafing to improve work
effectiveness. Adequate oversight policies would
Constructive Cyberloafing: (How) Is It Possible?
333
depend on the organization's ability to maintain
justice. Stanton (2002) argues that perceived
organizational justice is the main source of
employee satisfaction with the organization's
monitoring system, including feedback on
monitoring, clarity of assessment criteria, and
supervisor's expertise in monitoring. On the other
hand, the use of the internet for personal settlement
can be used as a way to restore justice in the
organization when employees feel they have been
treated unfairly (De-Lara & Melián-González,
2009).
Finally, it is important to conduct further
research on cyberloafing considering nowadays
employees can access the internet on their personal
devices in the office throughout working hours and
effective supervision is thus needed. The
implementation of effective supervision reflects the
managerial effectiveness of a leader. Strategies that
can be done include, in addition to being firm with
employees who engage in excessive cyberloafing,
leaders set an example by refraining from
cyberloafing (Koay, 2017).
5 CONCLUSION
The internet will always be a part of employees'
lives at work. The study of cyberloafing from a
constructive perspective is aimed, at a minimum, to
reduce the negative behavioural and psychological
impact of cyberloafing. Employees engage in
cyberloafing to balance work and personal lives.
Such balancing requires the ability to manage time.
Time management requires the effective use of
resources in prioritizing and scheduling to meet
individual responsibilities that include activities
unrelated to work (Seaward, 2002). In addition,
engaging in cyberloafing is also influenced by
employees' intention to comply with organizational
policies, and such an intention has to do with the
personal norms they uphold (Li et al., 2010). The
way individuals manage roles between work and
family can have implications on their job
performance (Kreiner, 2006). Regardless of the
various efforts organizations have made to reduce
the negative impacts of cyberloafing, research has
found sufficient evidence that we can look on the
bright sight. Thus, this research contributes to the
development of today's organizational behaviour by
promoting a new perspective of constructive
cyberloafing.
However, this method of analysis has a number
of limitations. The small sample size of the study
was not possible to generalize beyond the results of
this study, future researcher may use adequate
number of appropriate participants. Finally, for
researchers interested in scrutinizing the bright side
of cyberloafing, it is highly encouraged to use mixed
or multiple method research designs.
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