Advanced Lightweight Cryptography for Automotive Security: Surveys,

Challenges and Solutions

Phuc Tran and Duc Cuong Nguyen

HCL Vietnam, Vietnam

Keywords:

Lightweight Cryptography, Automotive Security, Authenticated Encryption, CEASAR.

Abstract:

Recently, automotive embedded systems have become strong principles of computing, along with an increas-

ing need for secure communication. The rapid development of the V2X (Vehicle-to-Everything) technology

for the entity’s interconnection leads to the rise of attack surface and the demand for cryptographic security

standard. In addition, the requirement of having secure automotive services and devices against not only

current but also future attacks are emerged. Unfortunately, providing robust, secure solutions for automotive

embedded systems still faces big challenges. Because of the distinctive characteristics and infrastructures

of the vehicular networks, the requirements for automotive security are far more complicated as compared to

other type of networks, such as conventional wireless networks, and mobile networks. In this paper, we present

a comprehensive survey of the developments in automotive security from the perspective of lightweight cryp-

tographic solutions, including lightweight algorithms and lightweight protocols. Furthermore, security chal-

lenges, issues and their cryptographic countermeasures as well as limitations of future automotive industry are

also discussed. These strategies can be ﬂexibly adapted to meet strict security levels of automotive security in

the future.

1 INTRODUCTION

In recent years, the swift progress of technology for

automotive industry from the high extent of automa-

tion and the remarkable attempt for the goal of au-

tonomous driving, confronts a dramatic change. This

transformation leads to the requirements of providing

secure hyper-connectivity among the entities in vehic-

ular networks. Consequently, automotive security be-

comes key concern for automotive embedded systems

in the future.

Authentication and veriﬁcation of data, especially

of big data exchanged among vehicles and their re-

lated entities (devices or applications) deserve utter

attention. Besides, the secrecy and conﬁdentiality of

entity’s information also needs to be evaluated as it

can only be accessed and transferred by trusted par-

ties. The difference between conventional networks,

like wireless network or mobile network and vehic-

ular network is the continuity and availability over

time, as the automotive entities (services and appli-

cations) need to be accessed and all the time when

authorities needed, while other networks’ programs

can be disconnected on speciﬁc occasion.

Although certain cryptographic algorithms, such

as public-key infrastructure (PKI) and elliptic curve

cryptography (ECC) offer strong protection against

different network attacks, they may not be employed

straightly in vehicular networks because of their high

mobility and particular network characteristics.

Furthermore, the tight requirements in con-

strained environments inhere the mass developments

of smart devices that impedes the development of new

lightweight cryptographic algorithms for automotive

security. New lightweight standards are required to

perform strong security mechanism, encryption/ de-

cryption, with low power applications and other func-

tionalities for the automotive embedded systems.

This paper aims at giving an overview on the

advancements of vehicular network and providing

visions on the lightweight cryptographic solutions.

Based on our study of the latest lightweight cryptog-

raphy in automotive systems, our paper includes nec-

essary aspects to consider when designing a suitable

lightweight standard for automotive security, and cov-

ers most of the effective lightweight methods such as

lightweight block cipher, lightweight stream cipher,

lightweight hashes, dedicated authenticated encryp-

tion, and lightweight protocols employed for VANET

architecture as well. We further present a compre-

304

Tran, P. and Nguyen, D.

Advanced Lightweight Cryptography for Automotive Security: Surveys, Challenges and Solutions.

DOI: 10.5220/0011109500003194

In Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Internet of Things, Big Data and Security (IoTBDS 2022), pages 304-311

ISBN: 978-989-758-564-7; ISSN: 2184-4976

hensive understanding of challenges and countermea-

sures in security of automotive embedded systems.

The paper is organized as follows: In Section 2,

we present the background of automotive embedded

systems as well as their challenges, and discuss coun-

termeasures and related limitations of the current au-

tomotive security. Lightweight cryptographic solu-

tions for automotive security are characterized in Sec-

tion 3. Section 4 presents discussions of future di-

rections of lightweight cryptography for automotive.

Finally, we give concluding remarks in Section 5.

2 BACKGROUND

In this section, we brieﬂy present automotive embed-

ded system architecture and summarize primary chal-

lenges and issues related to vehicular networks ap-

plied to this architecture. Certain solutions and limi-

tations are discussed afterwards.

2.1 Challenges and Issues of

Automotive Networks

Automotive networks require the corresponding sys-

tems to provide (close-to) instant responses. Hence,

one of the key points to consider is the real-time func-

tionalities that can assist in controlling systems. The

systems, necessarily, should provide two main fea-

tures: predictability and reliability. To this end, pre-

serving the predictability with ECUs faces principal

challenges as calling for low data rates and low com-

putational resources when providing security. Al-

though many existing proposals that provided secu-

rity with advancements in computational capacity and

bandwidth were presented, their application to the au-

tomotive systems is still under consideration.

Furthermore, in automotive networks, multicast-

ing and broadcasting are generally used for message

transmission between multiple receivers, simultane-

ously. As the result, the functional capabilities of

existing automotive communication protocols are re-

quired to be improved in terms of messages’ autho-

rization for all targeted receivers.

Additionally, intermittent connectivity is another

challenge for automotive security. Employing asym-

metric cryptography and security certiﬁcates is a

method to address this challenge, as enabling modules

to ensure their own security approaches without ask-

ing for any external connections between in-vehicle

components and external devices (such as a central

server).

Last but not least, most internal transmission in

vehicular network is also insecure. Components

do not typically use cryptographic techniques within

their features and, if possible, they generally employ

encryption/ decryption procedure across a wide vari-

ety of vehicles and ECUs with the same keys. Al-

though authentication process is essentially applied

when re-executing ECUs, conventional data trans-

missions are rarely encrypted or authenticated. This

leads to high possibility for attackers to exploit, as

presented in (Checkoway et al., 2011), (Miller and

Valasek, 2014a), (Othmane et al., 2014).

2.2 Countermeasures and Limitations

2.2.1 Intrusion Detection, Network Analysis and

Veriﬁcation

An Intrusion Detection System (IDS) for vehicle was

presented in (Miller and Valasek, 2014b) to discover

irregularities in the vehicular network by regularly

comparing trafﬁc to a standard.

Entropy-based approach (Muter and Asaj, 2011)

was employed to detect attacks without calling for

any predeﬁned models of the attacks. The attackers,

conversely, can make the intrusion detection works

remarkable harder as they make an effort to con-

fuse their attacks by masking or hiding their purposes

with some ﬁrmware modiﬁcation or injection tech-

niques, as in (Miller and Valasek, 2015) and (Miller

and Valasek, 2016).

To authenticate the internal transmission in vehic-

ular networks, (Sojka et al., 2014) proposed an ar-

chitecture which combines assessment of safety and

security requirements, called AUTomotive Open Sys-

tem ARchitecture (AUTOSAR). And, in (Mundhenk

et al., 2015b), a probabilistic checking framework

which depends on the standard security assessment

AUTOSAR, was presented to estimate the automotive

security.

2.2.2 Security Integration

Existing approaches often employed symmetric cryp-

tography to limit the overhead when adding security

in vehicular networks as well as in automotive em-

bedded systems. One of the effective techniques was

to use Message Authentication Codes (MACs). It al-

lowed fast and efﬁcient computation, especially on

ECUs with limited computational power (Lin et al.,

2013). In (Han et al., 2014), a proposal which mapped

the MACs with FlexRay protocol was presented,

called TESLA. Although this protocol supported de-

livering authentication for targeted symmetric mech-

anisms, it could not provide authorization as well as

validation for communication streams and communi-

cation partners. Moreover, the concept of integrat-

Advanced Lightweight Cryptography for Automotive Security: Surveys, Challenges and Solutions

305

ing a CMAC with Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

to automotive systems was proposed in (Zalman and

Mayer, 2014). This model supported the vehicular

networks in reducing the overhead and adapting to

the requirements of authentication and integrity. Fur-

thermore, another approach was presented by (Jiang

et al., 2012), as utilizing a pre-shared key in sym-

metric cryptography each automotive systems’ phase,

to ensure real-time response. Other models, such as

in (Herber et al., 2014) leveraged the advantages of

Virtual CANs (VCANs) to split network trafﬁc in the

consumer and corporate domain.

2.2.3 Limitations

The requirement of real-time response in the vehic-

ular networks leads to the failure of existing proto-

cols that were proposed for conventional networks,

as these protocols cannot deliver high throughput

performance, low latency, and message reliability.

In addition, the connected ECUs in CAN protocols

which broadcast information through CAN bus, re-

quire data/payload sizes as small as 64-bit block. In

this manner, a lightweight standard with 64-bit block

size and 128-bit key size is considered as the best in-

stance to meet real-time requirements in constrained

environment of vehicular networks and automotive

systems. Recently, many researchers have paid at-

tention to developing lightweight cryptographic stan-

dards and key generation schemes that ensure the se-

curity for vehicular networks with high performance

(Mundhenk et al., 2017), (Shen et al., 2018).

3 LIGHTWEIGHT

CRYPTOGRAPHIC

SOLUTIONS FOR

AUTOMOTIVE SECURITY

Lightweight cryptography separates into various

instances, including lightweight stream cipher,

lightweight block cipher, lightweight hashing, and

dedicated authenticated encryption version, with spe-

ciﬁc security requirements for each instance. In this

section, we present a summary of various lightweight

algorithms and lightweight protocols for automotive

embedded systems, which can be found in the litera-

ture.

3.1 Lightweight Block Cipher

Hong et al.’s research (Hong et al., 2013) presented

a lightweight algorithm LEA which is suitable for

multiple devices with constrained resources. Be-

sides, several block ciphers have been proposed in

existing research to meet better performance results

in hardware and software implementations such as

mCrypton (Lim and Korkishko, 2005), SEA (Stan-

daert et al., 2006), CLEFIA (Shirai et al., 2007), KLEIN

(Gong et al., 2011), XTEA (Yu et al., 2011), LED

(Guo et al., 2011b), PICCOLO (Shibutani et al., 2011),

PRINCE (Borghoff et al., 2012), RoadRunneR (Baysal

and Sahin, 2015), RECTANGLE (Zhang et al., 2015),

SPARX (Dinu et al., 2016) and SKINNY (Beierle et al.,

2016).

Extensively, some of these were tailored and en-

hanced by optimizing structural components of tra-

ditional block ciphers to upgrade their performance.

For example, DESL (Leander et al., 2007) is a DES

lightweight instance, which is designed from con-

ventional DES construction. In DESL, the authors

utilized a single S-box in a round function instead

of iterating eight rounds, which makes a difference

to initial and ﬁnal permutation generation to im-

prove hardware implementation. Additionally, SIMON

and SPECK (Beaulieu et al., 2015), which are other

lightweight block ciphers, are constructed in various

block sizes and key sizes. Both proposals are ﬂexible

with multiple platforms and result well across a va-

riety of lightweight applications. Furthermore, some

lightweight block ciphers are also presented in (Uni-

versit

e du Luxembourg, 2017).

Small Block Size and Small Key Size. Corre-

sponding to the structure of lightweight block cipher,

the block size and key size are required to be small for

constrained resource adaption and performance bene-

ﬁts. Generally, it should be less than 64-bits rather

than 128-bits. In particular, the more block size and

key size decreases, the more plaintext and power con-

sumption limits. For instance, PRESENT (Bogdanov

et al., 2007) is designed with 80-bits key size, and

TWINE (Hosseinzadeh and Hosseinzadeh, 2016) is tai-

lored with 80/128-bits key size.

Simple Key Schedule and Simple Function. Due

to the fact that the lightweight block ciphers per-

form simpler computation operations rather conven-

tional block cipher models, the structural functions

and rounds should be constrained in lightweight ratio-

nal designs. For instance, a single S-box 4-bit S-boxes

can be utilized instead of 8-bit S-boxes for lightweight

target. In addition, a simple key schedule which gen-

erates sub-keys, is also needed as low-resource lim-

itation. In this manner, some lightweight cryptogra-

phy proposals are as follows: PRESENT uses 4-bit S-

boxes, while Hummingbird2 (Mohd et al., 2015) and

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306

Iceberg (Standaert et al., 2004) have only four func-

tion rounds, or (Yu et al., 2011) divides 128-bits mas-

ter key into four 32-bits sub-keys.

3.2 Lightweight Stream Cipher

Stream ciphers are also motivating primitives for

lightweight standards. The eSTREAM (ECRYPT

2017) was organized by the European Network of

Excellence for Cryptology for ﬁnding novel stream

models that may be appropriate for boundless adop-

tion. Among the ﬁnal candidates in 2008, the three

stream ciphers of Trivium (Canni

ere, 2006), Grain

(Hell et al., 2007) and MICKEY (Babbage and Dodd,

2008) performed good results for hardware applica-

tions with limited resources. Some other lightweight

stream ciphers are Enocoro-80 (Watanabe et al.,

2008), A2U2 (David et al., 2011), WG-8 (Fan et al.,

2013) and Sprout (Armknecht and Mikhalev, 2015).

3.3 Lightweight Hash Function

It is more difﬁcult to develop and perform a

lightweight hash function than a lightweight ciphers.

The hash functions generally require a larger internal

state which is suitable for conventional systems than

other cryptographic algorithms, but this feature would

be costly on limited resource systems.

In 2010, Armknecht and Mikhalev proposed us-

ing lightweight hash function in RFID protocols

(Armknecht and Mikhalev, 2010). A traditional hash

function uses internal state with large size and costly

power consumption, which may not be suitable for

resource-constrained applications. Therefore, Guo

et al. presented lightweight algorithm PHOTON

in 2011 (Guo et al., 2011a) based on block cipher

model. Some other lightweight hash functions are Ar-

madillo (Badel et al., 2010), SPONGENT (Bogdanov

et al., 2011), QUARK (Aumasson et al., 2013a) and

BLAKE2S/B (Aumasson et al., 2013b).

Small Output Size. One of the critical require-

ments when designing a secure lightweight hash func-

tion is large size enough to offering collision resis-

tance, especially birthday attack protection. For ap-

plications do not require collision resistance in struc-

ture, internal and stabilize sizes may be used. On the

other hands, the secure hash functions not only pay at-

tention to collision resistance, but also need to provide

strong protection against preimage, second image and

impact attacks. This feature can decrease the range of

internal state.

Small Message Size. The large capacity of conven-

tional hash functions can be used to support the ad-

vantages of 264-bits size utilizing in structure. From

a lightweight hash viewpoint, the size should be much

smaller (e.g., at most 256-bits). In this manner, hash

functions that are improved for short messages may

be more suitable for lightweight applications.

3.4 Dedicated Authenticated

Encryption

Authenticated encryption (AE) is a type of symmet-

ric key cryptography. This model ensures security ap-

proaches, as conﬁdentiality, authenticity, and integrity

as well. The speciﬁc characteristics of the AE ar-

chitecture leads to a smaller area and lower power

consumption for hardware implementation. These

features are advantageous for constrained devices,

as only the encryption procedure is required to en-

crypt/decrypt the data (as no decryption procedure is

needed to verify the integrity of the message), com-

bining with MAC function (in terms of block or hash)

to provide the integrity and authenticity.

• POET/ POE (Abed et al., 2014): is a family

of On-Line Authenticated Encryption proposals.

This approach is suitable for low end applica-

tions since it allows using a single core proces-

sor. POET/POE is efﬁcient for high end devices

and provides high throughput on multi core ar-

chitecture. POET is ensure security against nonce

misuse and decryption misuse.

• AES-GCM (Arun et al., 2015) is a standardized

authenticated Galois/Counter mode (GCM). This

approach provides authenticity and conﬁdential-

ity, achieved by a universal hash function and

AES model, respectively. A unique nonce is used

in AES-GCM for each key. AES-GCM are high speed

at low cost, low latency, parallelism, and efﬁcient

software and hardware implementation.

• AEGIS (Wu and Preneel, 2016): AEGIS is a dedi-

cated authenticated encryption proposal. This ap-

proach is constructed from AES encryption round

functions, but not the last round. Its speed is faster

than AES in both the CTR mode and CBC mode.

AEGIS supports Parallel AES round functions at

each step, so it’s suitable for fast software and

hardware implementations. Furthermore, AEGIS

protects a packet as leaving the packet header un-

encrypted.

• ACORN (Wu, 2016): ACORN is an authenti-

cated encryption proposal which depends on lin-

ear feedback shift registers (LFSR). This approach

used for lightweight applications that has limited

Advanced Lightweight Cryptography for Automotive Security: Surveys, Challenges and Solutions

307

resources and for high performance applications.

ACORN separates the processing of associated data

and the plaintext/ ciphertext, as no requirements

of checking the message length (associated data,

plaintext or ciphertext) and message padding to a

multiple of block size which lowers the cost of

hardware implementation.

• MORUS (Wu and Huang, 2016): MORUS is an

approach of dedicated authentication cipher. The

design of MORUS depends on stream ciphers’ de-

sign which covers a small number of operations in

the state update function. The generated key and

nonce aim to shield only one message, while the

state size and key generation function contribute

to enhancing security against cipher attacks. This

proposal shows good results in hardware perfor-

mance by employing only AND, XOR, and ro-

tation operations in the update function. For the

software implementation results, MORUS is also

efﬁcient model as presenting good performance

across platforms.

• ASCON (Dobraunig et al., 2016): Ascon

has been selected as the primary choice for

lightweight authenticated encryption in the

ﬁnal portfolio of the CAESAR competition

(2014–2019) and is currently competing in the

NIST Lightweight Cryptography competition

(2019).

• Deoxys (Tean et al., 2016): Deoxys is a family of

authenticated encryption proposal which depends

on a tweakable block cipher (Deoxys-BC). This

approach has two authentication and encryption

models: (a) Deoxys-I for non-repeating nonce,

and (b) Deoxys-II for the nonce repeating ver-

sion. Deoxys performs well for small messages

which is suitable for lightweight applications. It

shows reasonable results on hardware and soft-

ware implementation, and ensures good security

for all its parameters.

• AEZ (Hoang et al., 2017): AEZ is presented as

an authentication encryption scheme. This ap-

proach provides strong security and usability fea-

tures. AEZ is parallelizable proposal which per-

forms with a computational cost close to the

AES-CTR model. Additionally, the associated data

of AEZ can be an arbitrary strings while the nonce

and key cover a variable length.

• SAEAES (Naito et al., 2018): This approach be-

longs to a family of authenticated encryption al-

gorithm, and was submitted to the Lightweight

Cryptography Project of National Institute of

Standards and Technology (NIST). It has a min-

imum state size since the state size equals to a

block size. There is no demand for an inverse to

do decryption. Besides, only XOR is needed for a

block cipher encryption and it is an online cipher,

i.e. a data block is processed only once.

3.5 Lightweight Cryptography Used for

VANET Security

VANETs are ad hoc routing protocols that implement

wireless transmission by mixing the concepts of both

ad hoc network proposal and wireless communica-

tion medium. The two fundamental wireless termi-

nals of the VANETs, On-Board Unit (OBU) and Road

Side Unit (RSU), take action as nodes within a wire-

less network to support in receiving and relaying mes-

sages. Hence, the connections between the OBUs and

RSUs are established to achieve safety services, such

as trafﬁc or weather information in real-time and cau-

tions of collision, as the targeted RSUs act as wire-

less access points and the embedded OBUs support in

communicating with other RSUs or OBUs.

Furthermore, every sent messages and received

messages are validated in a vehicular network through

the nodes to add the security approach to all automo-

tive services and devices.

Corresponding to the asymmetric and symmetric

cryptography, some lightweight protocols have been

proposed to improve the automotive security and to

satisfy the VANET’s security requirements in the fu-

ture.

• OTC (Dacosta et al., 2012): One-Time Cookie

(OTC) protocol is an approach which aims at pro-

tecting the vehicular system from SID theft and

session hijacking. This protocol ensures security

features as providing tokens for every request and

also applying HMAC with them for the request to

avoid token reuse.

• Adriadne (Hu et al., 2005): This approach is

based on Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) pro-

tocol. The Ariadne model ensures security be-

tween nodes’ communication by using one-way

hash function and MAC. Authentication is enabled

by using shared key.

• RobSAD (Chen et al., 2009): The RobSAD pro-

tocol provides an efﬁcient approach for Sybil at-

tack detection. In Sybil attack, several replica-

tions of a node, with numerous identities and var-

ious positions, are sent simultaneously that lead-

ing to network confusion and illegal agreement.

In RobSAD approach, Sybil node is recognized

when more than one node have same motion

routes, as different vehicles driven by different

drivers cannot carry same motion models.

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• SEAD (Mutalik et al., 2016): Secure and Efﬁ-

cient Ad hoc Distance (SEAD) protocol depends

on active destination sequenced distance vector

(DSDV) routing. This approach protects against

incorrect routing and ensures authentication us-

ing one-way hash function. Particularly, to elude

continuing route and to guarantee route freshness,

destination-sequence number is utilized. In ad-

dition, the SEAD protocol executes median node

hashing to certify the authenticity of each route.

• ECDSA (Manvi et al., 2009): Elliptical Curve

Digital Signature (ECDS) algorithm utilizes dig-

ital signature. This approach ensures security

and authenticity for automotive system by using

asymmetric operations with hash function. The

agreement is required for both sender and receiver

upon elliptical curve parameters.

• ARAN (Sanzgiri et al., 2002): Authenticated

Routing for Ad hoc Network (ARAN) was in-

spired from Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector

(AODV) protocol. A new node that wants to ac-

cess to the vehicular network has to send a cer-

tiﬁcate request to the third-party CA for a signed

certiﬁcate. All certiﬁed nodes are issued with the

CA’s public-key. ARAN ensures the authentica-

tion’s discovery and the freshness of the vehicular

route by using asymmetric algorithms and times-

tamps, respectively.

4 DISCUSSIONS

The life span of cars is much longer than other related-

IT systems that beneﬁts in frequently updated tech-

nologies and services. Hence, although deploying

cryptographic algorithms are important for ensuring

security purpose of the cars, there are still areas to be

considered in future research works, as the cryptanal-

ysis possibility is increased due to outdated employed

technologies, when the automotive devices applied on

cars are not easy to be substituted.

Furthermore, the key security concerns for future

automotive industry are to construct comprehensive

methods of both utilization and optimization targets

applied for vehicular networks extensively. There is

an urgent demand for realizing malicious threats and

exploring effective solutions to ensure automotive se-

curity by either developing new lightweight crypto-

graphic standards or employing existing proposals in

efﬁcient ways. Some directions could be considered

as the following:

• Cipher construction and performances: A key

concern should be considered comprehensively

on the security features of the standard is to evalu-

ate the increase of round number and round com-

plexity within architecture design of the cipher.

• Security metrics for new security standard: There

does not exist any security metrics that can ac-

curately ensure cryptographic security. Recently,

many attackers with advanced cryptanalysis tech-

niques can break encryption/ decryption proce-

dures. It calls for clear lightweight standards for

enhancing the security of constrained applications

in automotive systems.

5 CONCLUSION

In this study, we presented a comprehensive survey

on the role of lightweight cryptography for automo-

tive security. In addition, we discussed challenges, is-

sues, and countermeasures as well as limitations of fu-

ture directions for open research. We also have gone

over lightweight cryptographic solutions, including

lightweight algorithms and lightweight protocols in

terms of algorithm name and type, cryptanalysis, and

security metrics. It is important to develop more se-

cure and lightweight encryption algorithms that have

a smaller key size, fast processing, and require less

computation power.

Our work calls for actions to validate how effec-

tive these solutions are and if it is possible to im-

plement them in automotive systems. In addition,

algorithms for automotive embedded systems which

suitable for cutting-edge security standards like ISO

21434 and ISO26262 should be developed.

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