TAKING PRESSURE OFF KNOWLEDGE WORKERS

WITH THE HELP OF SITUATIONAL APPLICATIONS

Improving Time-to-proficiency in Knowledge Work Settings

Daniel Bachlechner, Michael Kohlegger, Ronald Maier and Gabriela Waldhart

Innsbruck Information Systems, Innsbruck University School of Management, Universitätsstraße 15, Innsbruck, Austria

Keywords: Knowledge work, Situational applications, Task-technology fit, Time-to-proficiency.

Abstract: Knowledge work is weakly structured, highly diverse and fast changing and thus needs flexible, personal-

ised support by software. Situational applications are a new breed of software that is assumed to fit to the

types of tasks and contextual requirements encountered in knowledge work settings. Furthermore, their ap-

plication is supposed to result in shorter time-to-proficiency. The main goal of this paper is to discuss these

assumptions taking the constructs of the task-technology fit model as well as the relationships among them

into account. Based on the model, three propositions are developed and discussed.

1 INTRODUCTION

Profound transformations of organisations backed by

information technology (IT) and the shift from tradi-

tional work to knowledge work (KW) (Kelloway et

al., 2000) have substantially changed workplaces for

many employees. From an IT perspective, increas-

ingly complex data need to be handled in weakly-

structured, highly diverse and fast-changing working

environments. Software, designed to support tradi-

tional work, cannot entirely cope with the require-

ments of KW. Furthermore, traditional software

development is slow and often delivering only a

subset of or an approximation to the potentially

useful and required functions.

Cherbakov et al. (2007, p. 2) describe end-user

development of situational applications (SAs) as a

trend promising to better meet the requirements of

KW settings. A recent IBM survey shows that 12%

of business employees and 42% to 68% of IT em-

ployees have already created applications to auto-

mate business functions outside official IT projects

(Cherbakov et al., 2007, p. 3). Enabling the devel-

opment and utilisation of SAs in a governed and

secure environment is a promising approach to pro-

vide knowledge workers access to the software sup-

port they need while avoiding the negative effects of

shadow IT.

The increasing presence of KW (Wolff, 2005, p.

37-42) and grassroots approaches in software devel-

opment suggests rethinking existing models explain-

ing the utilisation of software. In this work, we use

the task-technology fit (TTF) model (Goodhue,

1995; Goodhue et al., 1995) as a conceptual basis for

the analysis of the fit between SAs and tasks of KW.

The applicability of SAs in KW settings will be

discussed with a focus on the time needed to become

proficient in a new position where most tasks can be

characterised as KW.

Time-to-proficiency (TTP) is defined as the

amount of time an individual spends in a new job

environment before it is able to fulfil most tasks

without help from colleagues or supervisors (Wil-

liams et al., 2004). Although numerous factors influ-

ence TTP (Morrison et al., 1992, p. 930ff), changes

in routines and differences between positions are the

most significant ones (Pinder et al., 1987, p. 348).

Studies on potential savings resulting from reduced

TTP have already been conducted in fields such as

health care (Sullivan et al., 2003). The potential of

reducing TTP by means of innovative IT has not yet

been in the focus of research.

The goals of this paper are to discuss the appli-

cability of SAs in KW settings as well as to con-

struct propositions based on the TTF model. Section

2 explains the TTF model and its constructs focusing

on the utilisation of SAs for KW. Section 3 presents

three propositions based on the TTF model and

section 4 concludes with proposals for evaluating the

propositions.

378

Bachlechner D., Kohlegger M., Maier R. and Waldhart G..

TAKING PRESSURE OFF KNOWLEDGE WORKERS WITH THE HELP OF SITUATIONAL APPLICATIONS - Improving Time-to-proﬁciency in

Knowledge Work Settings.

DOI: 10.5220/0003118203780381

In Proceedings of the International Conference on Knowledge Management and Information Sharing (KMIS-2010), pages 378-381

ISBN: 978-989-8425-30-0

 2010 SCITEPRESS (Science and Technology Publications, Lda.)

2 TASK-TECHNOLOGY FIT

The TTF model explains how technology leads to

performance impacts (Goodhue et al., 1995, p. 215).

The central dependent construct of the model is the

individual’s interpretation of the fit between a task

and a technology. This fit is not only affected by the

task and the technology themselves, but also by

characteristics of the individual and, as it is not di-

rectly measurable, the user’s evaluation of the fit is

taken as a surrogate. It is assumed that a better fit

leads to higher performance.

Within the scope of this work, the task is charac-

terised as KW, the technology as either a traditional

or a situational application and the individual as a

digital native. Below, the TTF constructs and their

operationalisation for this work are explained in

detail. TTP is used as performance indicator.

Task. Tasks are actions performed by individuals to

transform certain inputs into outputs (Goodhue et al.,

1995, p. 216). They are characterised by their variety

and difficulty (routine versus non-routine), interde-

pendence (number of other systems to be integrated)

and degree of hands-on character (flexibility to meet

data needs and access routines) (Goodhue, 1995, p.

1833).

According to Schulze (2004, p. 46), knowledge

workers distinguish themselves from non-knowledge

workers along two dimensions: (1) they possess

mostly abstract knowledge requiring high levels of

formal education and (2) they produce new knowl-

edge rather than merely manipulate knowledge.

Maier (2007, p. 46f) describes KW as creative work,

addressing ill-structured problems in complex do-

mains with a high degree of variety using intellec-

tual abilities and specialised knowledge, organised

decentrally and requiring flexible, personalised IT

support. Concerning IT support for KW, new chal-

lenges are complex synchronisation needs of mobile

workspaces, information sharing within and across

organisational boundaries as well as finding docu-

ments and messaging objects using heterogeneous

formats and residing in a variety of distributed data

sources.

Knowledge workers have to orient themselves in

a dynamic and unpredictable environment requiring

decisions driven by unexpected events and excep-

tions to documented processes. In summary, they

face tasks which can be characterised not only as

particularly non-routine and interdependent but also

as exhibiting a high degree of hands-on character.

Thus, following the line of Goodhue’s (1995, p.

1833) argumentation, we can assume that knowledge

workers find traditional applications less able to

meet their needs than non-knowledge workers.

Technology. Technologies are tools used by indi-

viduals to carry out tasks. They are either computer

systems or user support services (Goodhue et al.,

1995, p. 216). We focus on software as technology

for KW and distinguish between two types of appli-

cations: traditional and situational applications.

Traditional applications usually address anticipated

situations requiring planned responses. KW, how-

ever, is characterised by unanticipated situations

which make unplanned responses necessary.

While developing and maintaining applications

that meet the requirements of KW is expensive, the

number of potential users per application typically is

rather low. Thus, applications supporting KW usu-

ally have low priority for IT departments and

knowledge workers often have no choice but to rely

on shadow IT.

The approach to develop SAs diverges signifi-

cantly from traditional methods (Cherbakov et al.,

2007), allowing solutions that are far more flexible

and dynamic than the ones available today. SAs are

highly context-specific sets of functionalities, ar-

ranged and put into use by an end-user to perform

certain tasks.

In traditional software development, develop-

ment phases are well defined and follow an agreed

procedure. Nevertheless, schedule overruns are fre-

quent. With respect to SAs, there are no defined

phases, milestones or schedules. The focus typically

lies on good-enough solutions that address immedi-

ate needs. Developers of SAs usually expect short

time-to-value from identifying needs to productive

application use.

Functional requirements of traditional software

are usually defined by a limited number of users.

Developers need to finalise requirements specifica-

tions in order to move to design and implementation.

Thus, changing business needs often lead to scope

creep. SAs usually accommodate requirement

changes caused by business changes. While re-

sources are allocated to address concerns such as

scalability and maintainability in traditional software

development, there is little focus on non-functional

requirements in the context of SAs. Thus, traditional

applications are often more robust.

The characteristics of SAs make them particu-

larly interesting for the needs of KW. SAs allow

giving form-fit to solutions with a particular task in

mind. DeSanctis et al. (1994, p. 125ff) differentiate

between the spirit of software (i.e., the developers’

intention) and the expectations of actual end-users.

The union of software developer and software user

TAKING PRESSURE OFF KNOWLEDGE WORKERS WITH THE HELP OF SITUATIONAL APPLICATIONS -

Improving Time-to-proficiency in Knowledge Work Settings

379

seems to be a particularly promising approach in the

context of KW as the knowledge worker’s world is

not easily accessible to outsiders such as members of

IT departments or external service providers.

Individual. Individuals, in the context of the TTF

model, are the persons utilising technologies to as-

sist them in performing tasks. They are characterised

by their training status, computer experience and

motivation (Goodhue et al., 1995, p. 215).

Members of the generation that grew up with the

presence of the Internet are considered digital na-

tives. They are currently joining the workforce and

are supposed to have an unconventional attitude

toward work (Cherbakov et al., 2007, p. 2). They (1)

have different learning preferences than previous

generations, (2) use a broad bandwidth of communi-

cation channels to enter social networks and access

digital resources, (3) see themselves as providers of

digital resources, not only as consumers, and (4)

demand customised instead of one-size-fits-all solu-

tions (Oblinger et al., 2005; Prensky, 2001).

Digital natives feel comfortable doing KW. They

are used to join decentrally organised groups using

flexible IT, proactively provide rather than only

consume knowledge and are able to deal with prob-

lems with a high degree of variety. This enables

them to better retain and use IT in creative and

meaningful ways (Oblinger et al., 2005, p. 2.6).

The concept of the digital native has been criti-

cised because of limited empirical evidence. It is

argued that most of the characteristics can neither be

seen as static, nor as generalisable throughout the

population (Bennett et al., 2008, p. 780). Neverthe-

less, for this work, the concept is perceived to be a

useful proxy for the future employee who might

have an unconventional approach toward work.

3 PROPOSITIONS

The three propositions described below are based on

the TTF model. The first proposition focuses on the

adaptability of traditional applications and SAs as

this attribute is assumed to be particularly important

in the context of KW. With the second proposition

comparing the fit between applications and KW in

general, we go one step further and consider addi-

tional requirements of applications supporting KW.

The third proposition focuses on TTP as a specific

and relevant performance indicator.

Proposition 1: Situational applications better adapt

to variations in tasks than traditional applications.

As mentioned above, KW is characterised by a

dynamic and unpredictable environment, and a low

level of standardisation. It addresses ill-structured

problems in complex domains and requires flexible,

personalised IT support.

In traditional software development projects,

changing business needs often lead to scope creep.

This typically results in overrunning the original

project budget and schedule. SAs, however, can be

adapted to changing business needs, not only in the

stage of development, but also afterwards. SAs can

be changed or reused as patterns for the develop-

pment of new SAs. Additionally, the complexity of

traditional applications makes it unlikely that deve-

lopers and end-users have the same understanding of

the intended purpose of an application. The union of

developer and end-user in the case of SAs avoids the

risk of misunderstandings between the two. This is

not only important in the development phase, but

also when applications are adapted to variations in

tasks.

Knowledge workers in organisations where an

ecosystem for SAs is in place have a clear advan-

tage. Such ecosystems typically provide interfaces to

internal information sources and facilitate sharing

and reusing SAs.

Proposition 2: Situational applications better fit to

knowledge work than traditional applications.

According to the TTF model, the task construct

is characterised by the attributes routineness, inter-

dependence and degree of hands-on character.

Knowledge workers typically deal with a great vari-

ety of issues, non-routine, ad-hoc situations and are

engaged in tasks that are interdependent with respect

to other organisational units. SAs facilitate the ac-

cess to as well as the integration of data from vari-

ous sources. This is useful to accommodate interde-

pendence in decentrally organised environments.

KW also exhibits a particularly high degree of

hands-on character as a considerable share of data

that needs to be accessed is not available in a pre-

programmed way.

Tasks exhibiting high interdependence as well as

a high degree of hand-on character are better sup-

ported by SAs than by traditional applications.

Knowledge workers often have to integrate data

from several information sources within and beyond

the organisation. Software reflecting the specific

requirements and being flexible enough to exchange

data with various other information systems is

needed.

Traditional applications hardly offer the required

features and interfaces. Additionally, SAs fit well to

KMIS 2010 - International Conference on Knowledge Management and Information Sharing

380

the characteristics of digital natives who are appreci-

ating flexibility and creativity.

Proposition 3: Situational applications result in

shorter time-to-proficiency than traditional applica-

tions.

The focus on the most relevant features reduces

the complexity of SAs and also contributes to im-

proved time-to-value. Both result in shorter TTP, the

former by constraining learning efforts and the latter

by reducing the time to productive application use.

While schedule overruns are an issue known from

traditional software development, developers of SAs

consider themselves satisfied once the application is

good-enough to address an immediate need. Particu-

larly digital natives appreciate flexibility and re-

duced TTP.

Short TTP is critical for knowledge workers in

many respects. Becoming proficient quickly after

joining a new organisation or after variations in

tasks is a major challenge for knowledge workers.

The reuse of SAs either with or without adjustments

as well as the availability of a well-documented

collection of electronically accessible information

sources result in improved TTP. Because changes in

routines and differences between positions are the

most significant factors influencing TTP, giving

employees the chance to reuse applications is likely

to affects TTP positively.

4 CONCLUSIONS

In this paper, we discussed the applicability of SAs

in KW settings. The discussion resulted in three

propositions based on the TTF model. These propo-

sitions describe how the constructs task, technology

and individual influence the user evaluation of the fit

between tasks of KW and a traditional as well as

situational applications. TTP was used as perform-

ance indicator.

In order to evaluate the propositions constructed

within the scope of this work, we propose conduct-

ing (1) semi-structured interviews with human re-

source experts for a better understanding of TTP, (2)

an experiment contrasting two groups of digital

natives supported by SAs and traditional applica-

tions, respectively, using observations and question-

naires for data collection and (3) a field study ob-

serving employees taking up new positions in or-

ganisations providing an ecosystem suitable for the

development and utilisation of SAs. This may result

in new theories explaining in what respect and under

what circumstances SAs can benefit organizations,

not only with respect to TTP. To us, the TTF model

seemed to be a good starting point.

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