Students’ Motivation Profiles as Predictors of Physical Activity
Participation
Jonar T. Martin, Michael E. Santos and Joel G. Tubera
Physical Education Department, College of Education. Angeles University Foundation, Angeles City, Philippines
Keywords: Motivation, achievement goal, self-determination, college, physical activity.
Abstract: The study examined the relationship between the students’ motivation profile and physical activity
participation. The sample comprised 368 college students both male (n=162, 42.9%) and female
(n=216, 57.1%) aged from 15 to 23 years old, with a mean age of 16.83 (SD=1.75) who completed
the Perception of Success Questionnaire, Perceived Physical Competence Scale, Sport Motivation
Scale and Physical Activity Participation Questionnaire. Descriptive analysis and linear regression
analysis were conducted to describe and examine the relationship between achievement goal, self-
determination and physical activity participation. Results indicated that students had high task
orientation, moderate levels of ego orientation and moderate levels of perceived physical
competence. Although students have high levels of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, they
were more likely to have intrinsic motivation for participation in physical education classes.
Physical activity participation was moderate level for this group of students. In terms of the
predictive relationship of the variables, gender, task orientation, perceived competence, intrinsic
motivation and extrinsic motivation were significantly related with physical activity participation
while ego orientation was not significantly related. The results of this study could help teachers to
better understand the role of motivation in physical education, which could assist efforts in
fostering lifelong physical activity participation.
1 INTRODUCTION
The decline of physical activity among young people
has been well reported by researchers (Grunbaum et
al., 2004; Sue et al., 2002; Tomkinson 2007). It has
been largely recognized that the prevalence of obesity
is directly related to this issue of inactivity (James,
2004). As a health measure regular physical activity
has become a priority in schools and communities.
According to Rink (2009), the best setting to promote
and stimulate students to acquire behaviours and
knowledge related to adopting a physically active
lifestyle is through school physical education.
However, in order to successfully promote physical
activity to the diverse range of students encountered
in physical education classes, a thorough
understanding of student motivation is essential
(Standage, Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2003). Two theories
that have been applied to sport and physical education
when it comes to motivation are the Achievement
Goal Theory (Nicholls, 1989; Roberts, 2001) and
Self-Determination Theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000;
2000a).
The achievement goal theory proposed that an
important prerequisite for motivated behavior is a
desire to feel competent (Nicholls, 1989). In this
theory, there are two perspectives that predominate,
one being ego orientation and the other task
orientation. When students are task-oriented they
judge their ability levels against themselves, while
when they need to compare their skills against other
students they are ego-oriented (Standage & Treasure,
2002). Perceived physical competence is another
concept established by the achievement goal theory,
which refers to one’s beliefs about the ability to be
successful in an achievement domain (Ferrer-Caja &
Weiss, 2000). Individuals feel more successful when
they have demonstrated competence in an activity.
Demonstration of physical competence is the primary
focus of individuals in achievement settings, which
can be showed via the two goal orientations (Kosma,
Cardinal, & Rintala, 2002).
Considerable researches found out that both ego
orientation and task orientation are related to
perceived physical competence, though, task
orientation was pointed out to result in higher
perceived competence (Grasten et al., 2012;
Martin, J., Santos, M. and Tubera, J.
Students’ Motivation Profiles as Predictors of Physical Activity Participation.
In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Sports Science, Health and Physical Education (ICSSHPE 2017) - Volume 1, pages 349-353
ISBN: 978-989-758-317-9
Copyright © 2018 by SCITEPRESS – Science and Technology Publications, Lda. All rights reserved
349

Wallhead & Ntoumanis, 2004). In a study by
Ommundsen (2005) it was found out that perceived
physical competence was one of the strongest
predictors of intrinsic motivation in physical
education. Moreover, Granero-Gallegos et al (2012)
reported that task orientation and perceived physical
competence were more correlated with higher
physical activity participation.
In the Self-determination Theory, Ryan and Deci
(2000) (2000a) explained the existence of different
types of motivation, depending on the level of self-
determination (i.e. if the origin of the motivation is
more or less from within the person), which form a
continuum ranging from highest to lowest degrees of
self-determination, motivation can be intrinsic,
extrinsic, or amotivation. The highest degree of self-
determination is found in individuals who are
intrinsically motivated, which involves a
commitment to the activity because of the pleasure
and enjoyment obtained from it, making it an end in
itself. The highest degree of self-determination is
found in individuals who are intrinsically motivated,
they are the ones who perceive the activity as an end
in itself and committed to participate because of pure
enjoyment and a deep sense of knowledge to learn
more from the activity. In intrinsic motivation (to
know, to accomplish and to experience stimulation),
individuals do an activity to have fun, learn new
things or develop their skills. While extrinsic
motivation describes situations in which individuals
do an activity as a means to achieve certain desirable
results (identified regulation, introjected regulation
and external regulation). On the other hand,
amotivation refers to lack of motivation where no
contingency between actions and outcomes is
perceived and there is no perceived purpose in
engaging in the activity (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
A plethora of studies have shown that students
who have higher intrinsic motivation categorized as
more self-determined participated more in physical
activity (Gallegos et al., 2012; Moreno et al., 2008;
Wang et al., 2002). Moreover, self-determined
motivation predicted a high intention to be active and
to do physical activity (Standage & Treasure, 2002).
In the context of physical education, those with self-
determined motivational profiles also connect with
cooperative learning, positive motivational
consequences (interest, effort, satisfaction, fun and
high participation) (Ntoumanis, 2002; Wang &
Biddle, 2001), and higher physical activity
participation (Wang et al., 2002).
There is compelling evidence linking both
achievement goal and self-determination perspectives
to motivated behaviour (Duda & Hall, 2001;
Vallerand & Rousseau 2001) and physical activity
participation (Granerro-Gallegos et al., 2012; Wang
et al., 2002). Therefore, it seems important to analyse
all the factors that could influence youngsters’
likelihood of becoming physically active by
examining the integration of the achievement goal
theory and the self-determination theory in the
context of physical education.
Based on the aforementioned precedents, the
study was designed with the following objectives: a)
Explore the profiles of the students in terms of
gender, achievement goals, self-determination, and
physical activity participation; and b) examine the
predictive utility of both achievement goal and self
determination on the physical activity participation of
students beyond the PE class. According to the
findings, implications were drawn for physical
educators. It is hoped that the findings of the study
could assist the physical educators in shaping the
class environment, which could assist efforts in
fostering lifelong physical activity participation
among young people.
2 METHODS
2.1 Study Design and Participants
A random sample of three hundred seventy eight first
year college students in six universities in Central
Luzon, Philippines both male (n=162, 42.9%) and
female (n=216, 57.1%) participated in this cross-
sectional survey design study. In general, the age
range was between 15 to 23 years old, with a mean
age of 16.83 (SD=1.75). Participants answered the
questionnaire measuring their goal orientation, self-
determination, and physical activity participation.
2.2 Instruments Used
To measure goal orientation, the Perception of
Success Questionnaire (Roberts et al., 1998) was used
to measure whether students are ego or task oriented
in terms of their achievement goal. Moreover, the
Physical Self-Perception Profile (Fox & Corbin,
1989) was used to measure the physical competence
of the students. For the present study, satisfactory
reliability measures were reported for both
instruments.
In measuring self-determination, the Sport
Motivation Scale by Pelletier et al. (1995) adapted to
PE was used to measure motivation. The scale
consists of 24 items measuring the two levels of
motivation from intrinsic to extrinsic motivation. The
ICSSHPE 2017 - 2nd International Conference on Sports Science, Health and Physical Education
350

instrument was satisfactory reliable for the present
study.
To assess physical activity participation outside of
school PE, the Physical Activity Participation
Checklist by Wang et al. (2002) was adopted to
measure time spent in physical activity. The internal
reliability coefficient of the instrument was
satisfactory for the present sample.
2.3 Data Analysis
The statistical analysis was conducted in the
following order: descriptive statistics, examination of
reliability measures of each subscale and linear
regression analyses. Prior to statistical analyses, the
normality and missing values were examined. A p-
value ≤ 0.05 was set as the criterion of statistical
significance. Statistical analysis was completed with
the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
software (2008), version 17.0.
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Descriptive analyses such as the means and standard
deviations of the overall sample are shown in Table
1. Generally, students had high task orientation,
moderate levels of ego orientation and moderate
levels of perceived physical competence. Although
students have high levels of both intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation, they were more likely to have
intrinsic motivation for participation in physical
education classes. Physical activity participation was
moderate level for this group of students.
Table 1: Means and standard deviations for study variables.
Variable
Mean
SD
α
Task
3.92
0.85
0.90
Ego
2.75
0.84
0.81
Perceived
competence
2.88
0.95
0.89
Intrinsic
Motivation (IM)
3.52
0.80
0.88
Extrinsic
Motivation (EM)
3.43
0.72
0.86
Physical activity
participation
(PA)
2.13
0 .69
0.77
Table 2 presents the linear regression analysis of
variables predicting physical activity participation.
As shown in the table, gender (β=0.378, p<0.05), task
orientation (β=0.154, p<0.05), and perceived
competence (β=0.334, p<0.05) significantly predict
physical activity participation while ego orientation
does not significantly predict physical activity
participation (β=0.038, p>0.05).
Gender (male) significantly predicts physical
activity participation which supported previous
findings by Polman et al. (2004), that male have
higher physical activity participation than female. In
connection, Moreno et al. (2010) reported that higher
levels of physical activity participation could be
attributed to a greater preference of males for PE and
sports than females since school respondents have
more facilities for sports. In addition, Cervello et al.
(2004) argued that females do not have the same
opportunities to engage in physical activities
compared to boys.
The data also showed that perceived physical
competence has a positive effect on the respondents’
physical activity participation. Similarly, Wang et al.
(2002) have found out a positive relationship
between perceived physical competence and
physical activity participation. In connection,
previous research has revealed that perceived
physical competence is linked with intrinsic
motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ommundsen,
2005), enjoyment in physical activity (Biddle et al.,
2003). It was well documented that the youth have
high physical competence are more likely to enjoy
the activity than those reported to have lower levels
of physical competence (Ferrer-Caja & Weiss,
2000). Enjoyment is an intrinsic element associated
with exercise motivation to engage in physical
activity (PA) (Dishman et al., 2005). In a study
targeting students in the U.S. at grades four to twelve
by Sallis et al. (1999), PE enjoyment was one of the
strongest and most consistent correlates of physical
activity.
Table 2: Linear regression analyses of variables predicting
physical activity participation.
PA
β
R
2
p
Gender
0.378*
7.3%
.000
Task
0.154*
3.5%
.000
Ego
0 .028
0.1%
.515
Perceived
competence
0.334*
21.0%
.000
Intrinsic
Motivation
(IM)
0.206*
4.0%
.000
Extrinsic
Motivation
(EM)
0.247*
5.6%
.000
*p<0.05
Students’ Motivation Profiles as Predictors of Physical Activity Participation
351

4 CONCLUSIONS
The purpose of the study was to explore the profile of
the first year college students in terms of achievement
goal, self-determination and physical activity
participation outside school physical education.
Moreover, the study aimed to examine the predictive
relationships of gender, achievement goal profiles,
and self-determination profiles with the physical
activity participation levels outside school physical
education lessons of first year college students.
Results indicated that students had high task
orientation, moderate levels of ego orientation and
moderate levels of perceived physical competence.
Although students have high levels of both intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation, they were more likely to
have intrinsic motivation for participation in physical
education classes. Physical activity participation was
moderate level for this group of students. In terms of
the predictive relationship of the variables, gender,
task orientation, perceived competence, intrinsic
motivation and extrinsic motivation were
significantly related with physical activity
participation while ego orientation was not
significantly related.
The results of the study imply that educational
reforms are needed to increase students’ motivation
to engage and enjoy regular physical activity.
Likewise, a “paradigm shift” in terms of teaching-
learning process is needed to create a motivational
climate that would result to more physically active
individuals even beyond the PE class. Exploring the
profiles of students in terms of demographic
characteristics, achievement goal, self-
determination, and physical activity participation;
and examining the predictive relationship between
the aforementioned variables would provide a better
view on how to formulate varied activities that will
foster lifelong physical fitness.
Gathered data on achievement goal profile of the
respondents imply that PE teachers should be trained
on how to structure the PE lesson adapted to the
students’ achievement goal context (e.g. how to
diagnose, appropriate strategy, and authentic
assessment). Given that the students are task oriented,
teachers should devise activities that would satisfy
their achievement goal inclination. Likewise,
sufficient time allotment for practice during PE class
should be given to students for them to develop
physical and psychological maturation on
performance.
Results on the self-determination profiles of the
respondents suggest that PE teachers should provide
a meaningful rationale expressing the importance of
partaking in the activity (e.g. to learn to play
cooperatively, to have fun, to accomplish the task, for
health benefits) and giving autonomy to the students
(e.g. setting of rules, officiating or judging on their
own, creating the rubric for evaluation, less
supervision from the teacher). In addition, the PE
teacher should make learning intrinsically
meaningful by designing the lessons and assessment
tools focusing on individual gains, improvement, and
progress, so that students can develop an appreciation
of their abilities, which promote feelings of intrinsic
satisfaction and continued interest in physical
activity.
Findings on the physical activity participation of
the respondents imply that the PE program in-
cooperation with the school should provide different
physical activities (e.g. sports fest, dance exercise
activities, fun run, etc.) apart from the PE class in
which students can participate in a long-term basis (1
semester). Furthermore, the content covered in PE
class should be conformed to the exercise or sports
equipment and facilities of the school and community
so that students can continue to practice and engage
in physical activities even beyond PE class time. In
addition, the content in the curriculum should be
adjusted by selecting activities that are geared toward
the interest and hobbies of the students which could
result to more motivated behavior, this could be done
by conducting a survey on the preferred activities by
students.
In terms of the relationship of gender to all
variables of the study, it is implied that PE teachers
should treat males and females differently when
designing the curriculum. The current interests of
college students in selection of content covered in the
PE class, particularly girls, should be taken into
account because this may influence their commitment
and increase motivation in physical activity
participation. An environment that is gender sensitive
could be beneficial to motivate girls to engage more
in physical activity. By giving students the
opportunity to choose their physical activity, girls can
become less pressured and be more comfortable in
performing their physical activity which can lead to
higher motivation to be engaged in physical activity.
Additionally, improving and increasing the feedback
given to girls could also help them become motivated.
Findings on the predictive relationships between
the achievement goal profiles, self-determination
profiles, and physical activity participation imply that
PE teachers need to be trained and have resources
available that will guide them in their attempts to
create a motivational adaptive class environment
which could enhance motivation and may counteract
the present lamented lack of motivation young people
have with regard to engaging in physical activity.
Additionally, PE teachers and curriculum designers
should create a working taxonomy of actions that is
adaptive to the achievement goal profiles and self-
ICSSHPE 2017 - 2nd International Conference on Sports Science, Health and Physical Education
352

determination profiles of students. Implementing any
future intervention programs will be greatly
facilitated by operational detail that will guide the
teacher in selecting appropriate strategies that foster
lifelong physical fitness.
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