Hoax as Political Influence Tool in Indonesia

Gayes Mahestu

, Mariani Dewi

, Siswantini

Marketing Communication Program, Communication Department, Faculty of Economics & Communication, Bina

Nusantara University, Jakarta, Indonesia 11480

Keyword: Hoax, Political Influence Tool

Abstract: Indonesia is facing emergency in managing hoax or fake news in online media. Hoax in this digital era has

become an industry that produce fake news sold by agents, be it voluntarily or paid, to be consumed by

online media users, being spread through ‘like’ and ‘share’ function. Hoaxes have become very dangerous

problems because they are usually provocative, contain slanders, hate speech, and stir up issues. The issues

they carry usually are in the sphere of politics as well as regarding ethnicity, religion, race, and inter-group

relations that can disturb the national stability. The aim of this research is to understand the Construction of

Hoax News in the Online Media in Indonesia throughout 2017. The research is using the Content Analysis

Method. Result Show that hoax in Indonesian news is mostly packaged in the form of news, infographics,

and meme. It mainly spread through media that appear in social media. Currently many media sites were

prohibited by the government because they are proven to be spreading hoax, false news and hate speech on

race, ethnicity and religious issues. This kind of media usually uses satire-inclined statements and the titles

are bombastic or draw curiosity. Often the content does not match the title and hoax is spread through social

media like Facebook. Hoax is often in the form of propaganda, false information, partisan (loyal supporter),

satire, sponsored content, and conspiration theory.

1 INTRODUCTION

Indonesia right now faces the emergency in

overcoming hoax and fake news in online media.

According to the Ministry of Communication and

Information, as reported by CNN Indonesia, in

December 2016, there are around 800,000 sites in

Indonesia that are indicated to spread fake news and

hate speech(CNN Indonesia 2016). The Merriam-

Webster dictionary defines hoax as “to trick into

believing or accepting as genuine something false

and often preposterous” (Meriam Webster 2017).

The Cambridge dictionary defines hoax as a plan to

deceive someone, such as telling the police there is a

bomb somewhere when there is not one, or a trick

(Cambridge Dictionary 2017).

Hoax is usually written or produced to be shared

and forwarded to as many people as possible. Some

hoaxes make use of human fear or sense of

sympathy for others. Although hoax has been known

since the ancient time, hoax in the digital era poses

momentous thread because of its faster and wider

spread through online media, social media, and

phone social applications to reach the record number

of audiences. This is along the growth of public

access to internet. The TIK Indicator data released

by the Ministry of Communication and Information

in 2016 shows that household access to internet

grew around 15% within three years, from 19.6% in

2013 to around 36% in 2016(Kominfo 2016).

In 2016 - 2017 was unordinary because the

duration was filled with the Jakarta governor

election process as well as the capture of some

corruptors by the Corruption Eradication Committee

(KPK).The issues spread by hoaxes are mostly

related to SARA that seem to aim to destabilize the

country’s stability as the information pitches one

group against another. The phrases and sentences

chosen are often provocative, slandering, and filled

with hate.

Research conducted by Masyarakat Telematika

Indonesia (Mastel), published on 13 February 2017,

shows that around 91.8% respondents admitted to

received hoaxes related to social political issues,

such as related to the regional head election. They

also received hoax that relates to SARA issues

around 88.6% of the times. The hoaxes were

received in the form of texts (62.1%), images

140

Mahestu, G., Dewi, M. and Siswantini, .

Hoax as Political Inﬂuence Tool in Indonesia.

DOI: 10.5220/0010003900002917

In Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Social Sciences, Laws, Arts and Humanities (BINUS-JIC 2018), pages 140-147

ISBN: 978-989-758-515-9

(37.5%), and videos (0.4%). They mostly received

the information through social media (92.4%),

namely Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and Path;

websites (34.9%), television (8.7%), print media

(5%), email (3.1%) and radio (1.2%)(Mastel 2017).

Not only general public, even journalists

sometimes fall into the trap of hoax because some

hoaxes mix reports from credible media outlets with

some lies added in. As such, reporters who do not

follow stringent journalistic procedures may

unknowingly participate in spreading of hoax. This

leads to confusion among the general public on

which information they can trust. This situation is

exacerbated by the low digital literacy in Indonesia.

The Jakarta Post newspaper reported a study by

Central Connecticut State University in the US that

in 2016, Indonesia’s literacy level was still at the

rank 61, which is the second place from the bottom,

only better than Botswana. (Gunawan A, 2016) The

level of information literacy contributes to the ease

of the public to be provoked or trust the hoaxes.

The government has done various efforts to curb

hoax in Indonesia, such as support anti-hoax forums

such as turnbackhoax.id, discussing with the Press

Council, industry players like Google, Facebook,

and other stakeholders to find most effective

solutions. It is reported that the government planned

to form the National Cyber Committee and had

recruited experts to serve there. (Fachrudin F, 2017).

After understanding the background of the issues

consequently the research is to find the Hoax

Construction in Online Media in Indonesia during

2016 - 2017 Period, this research also trying to

describe forms of the hoax as information to the

public and curbing hoax.

2 METHODOLOGY

The methodology for this research is the qualitative

research to explain the phenomena as clearly as

possible through thorough data gathering. This

research is subjective in nature and the results are

more toward casuistic, and not to be generalized. In

Kriyantono moreover explain that the descriptive

research aim to make the description more

systematic, factual, and accurate about the facts and

nature of certain object or certain population. This

research is to depict the reality that is happening

without explaining the relation between the variables

(Kriyantono R and Rakhmat S J, 2014).The research

method used in this research is content analysis,

which the research technique for the objective,

systematic, and quantitative description of the

manifest content of communication

(Berelson&Kerlinger in (Kriyantono R and Rakhmat

S J, 2014))

The systematic technique to analyze content of

communication or a tool to observe and analyze the

content of open communication behavior by chosen

communicator (Budd R W, Thorp R K, Donohew L,

1967 ). The benefits of the Content Analysis include:

1. Describe communication content

2. Predict media description toward certain

group

3. Compare media content

4. Compare media content with social reality

(media content is reflection of social-culture

values)

5. Understand the function and effect of

media

The research also studied the online media trend

through the lens of Mass Media Social Construction

Substance research method, which assume that the

reality constructed also form mass opinion, apriory-

inclined mass and cynical-inclined mass. The

position of Mass Media Social Construction is to

correct the substantial weakness and complete the

social construction on the reality by putting all

strengths of the media and effect of media on the

mass media construction on the social construction

of reality. This simultaneous process does not work

suddenly but go through some important stages. The

researchers recognized and classified hoax that

circulated throughout 2017 by recognizing the

characteristic of hoax through the choosing of

phrases and sentences by the makers, and to

recognize its intended effects on the audience by the

makers (Bungin MB, 2008).

Data gathering techniques employed by the

researchers include:

1. Literary Study

Data gathering done through literature study by

gathering hoaxes spread in online media in

Indonesia from January 2016 to February 2017.

This period is chosen because during this period,

the volume of hoax increased, and the

government deemed hoax as the public enemy in

Indonesia.

2. Critical Linguistics

Data gathering is done by analyzing and

classifying hoax texts gathered based on certain

criteria.

3. Observation

Data gathering through observation done by

researchers to understand the receptiveness and

response toward hoaxes by the audience.

Hoax as Political Inﬂuence Tool in Indonesia

141

The analysis techniques employed by this

research is the mass media social construction

process proposed by Burhan Bungin in its book,

which go through the following phases:

1. Preparation of construction material

Preparation of mass media social construction

material is the duty of editors in the mass media

offices, and the task is distributed to desk editors

in the media organizations.

2. Construction distribution phase

Mass media construction distribution is done

through mass media strategy. The strategy can be

different from one media organization to the

other media organizations, but the main principle

is still the real time (timeliness) principle.

3. Reality construction formation phase

a. After the construction distribution phase,

reality construction forms in the public

through three stages generically. First, the

reality construction justification; second,

willingness to be reconstructed by mass

media; third, as consumptive choice.

b. Image construction formation wished to be

established by the construction phase. This

image construction by mass media formed in

two models: 1) good news model and 2) bad

news model.

4. Confirmation phase, which is the phase where

the mass media and audience give their

argumentation and accountability on their

choices in this construction formation phase. For

media, this phase is needed to explain why it is

involved and willing to take part in the social

construction process.

3 DISCUSSION

Media has the power to direct the mass and form

public opinion, particularly the online news sites as

they are accessible to wider public. This power has

been growing in Indonesia.

Hoax is one type of rumours and gossips, which are

not new in the world, although their spread through

online media is much more speedy and far-reaching.

The study on rumours has long history in the social

science study.

According to Nicholas DiFonzon and Prashant

Bordia, there are four criteria of rumours:

1. The statement of information, not opinion.

2. The statement spread, not kept privately.

3. The statement is not verified.

4. The statement is relevant, answering the

questions which are deemed important by

the people

Rumours (and hoaxes) have been the subjects of

research for a long time, and the book Psychology of

Rumours by Gordon Allport and Leo Postman

published in 1947 has become one of the early

references. Since then, many more researches have

been performed. Allport and Postman in the book

Basic Law of Rumor stated that the spread of

rumours (and hoaxes) depended on the uncertainty

of the situation and the importance of the rumours

(AllportG W and Postman L, 1947). It was found

that rumours spread faster when there was some

uncertainties in the condition. People spread

rumours because they are restless. Research found

that “scaring” rumours spread faster than “hopeful”

rumours, meaning rumours about something bad

spread faster than the rumours about something

good.

Based on the data published by Press Council

(Dewan Pers) on its site dewanpers.co.id, there are

1,991 media companies registered as press company

in Indonesia, as follows (Dewan Pers 2017):

a) 714 media are Administration and Factual

Verified, and 127 among them run online

news site;

b) 914 media Administration Verified, 300

among them run online news site;

c) 757 media are unverified, and 441 among

them run online news site.

The movement of media in Indonesia has

positive impact as seen as the sheer number of media

registered to Dewan Press. However, do these media

uphold their responsibility as factual, educative fair

and balance, particularly in delivering the news

according to the context of event. Discussing online

media in Indonesia also go beyond the registered

media, as the social media now provide easy and

flexible way used by individuals and groups to

deliver news content. And among the popular social

media, Facebook is the most widely used as news

sites. It is understandable because Indonesia is

the one of the largest Facebook users in world.

According to the research by We Are Social in April

2017 (Kemp S 2017) Indonesia was placed as

number four largest number of Facebook users with

around 111 million users, followed by the popularity

of Instagram with around 45 million users.

Indonesian public in the past decade has been

experiencing digital technology enhancement that

opens up the private space and public space, which

has positive impact of opening ideas and information

exchange. However, if not balanced by the necessary

BINUS-JIC 2018 - BINUS Joint International Conference

142

digital literacy, it can be damaging as well. This

allow the appearance of hoax, hate speech, cyber

bullying and other negative impacts in digital space.

According to (Chabibie H, 2017)

pustekkom.kemdikbud.go.id, in the idea context,

Indonesian public do not have strong literacy

foundation. The Program for International Student

Assesment (PISA) research ranked Indonesia

literacy tradition in 2012 at rank 64 out of 65

countries studied. The student reading index,

Indonesia was placed on number 57 out of 65

countries research. While literacy level in the offline

world maybe different than online world, however it

could represent the literacy in the online world.

(Davis C H, Shaw D, 2011) Digital literacy means

the capabilities related to the hypertextual

information, in the form of non-sequential reading

based on computer or digital platform (Davis &

Shaw, 2011). As such, the analytical capability

becomes essential. According to Gilster Digital

literacy – the ability to access networked computer

resources and use them – is such a concept (CopeB

and Kalantzis M, 2000)

Hoax and hate speech emergency have been

warned by the government of Indonesia and the

government is committed to curb it. Throughout

2017, Indonesia was plagued by false news and hate

speech that aim at dividing the public. Comments on

various media and on social media were filled by

attacking statements directed to people who have

different views than them and spread worries across

the public. The social media has massive and active

movement as it allows easier way to comment,

easily accessible, less monitored than other forms of

online news media.

The analysis of the media condition data and the

news production of media can be seen on the table

below:

Table 1: Media Overall Condition in Indonesia

Name Administrat

ion and

Factual

Verified

Media

Administrat

ion Verified

Media

Unverified

Media

Social

Media

(Facebo

ok)

Number of

Media

714 media,

127 among

them run

online news

site

914 media,

300 among

them run

online news

site

757 media,

441 among

them run

online

news site

exact

number

known

Title 90% news

titles match

their

content

76% news

titles match

their

content

60% news

titles match

their

content

35%

news

titles

match

their

conten

Organizati

Official Official Unverified Unclear

Content Tend

toward

neutrality,

not using

bombastic

wordings,

not using

personal

wordings

Using

flowery

wording to

make it

appealing

Content

highlighted

tend to be

bombastic

and toward

personal

matter

Content

created

to give

personal

vibe on

provoca

tive

content

Neutrality Tend

toward

neutrality

Quite

neutral

while

inserted a

little the

media’s

point of

view

Highlight

Hal yang

disoroti

yang

dianggapak

an popular

masyarakat

Show

support

for one

side,

which

automat

ically

affect

the

news

conten

Sources Result of

reportage

by field

journalists

and results

collaboratio

n with other

media

outlets

Results of

reportage

journalist,

partly

obtain from

other bigger

sites

Mainly

obtain

from other

bigger sites

Create

own

content

that

highly

loaded

with

interests

, gather

and

modify

informat

ion

Content

Update

Updated Updated Not

Updated

Readers

Participati

Not too

active

Not too

active

Not Active Very

active

and

interacti

Source: research data analysis 2017

The year 2017 was the political year for

Indonesia because of the Jakarta governor election,

which drew major public attention in Indonesia. The

situation became “hot” after the spread of hoaxes

and hate speech related to religion, race and

ethnicity. In the mid-August, the public was shocked

by the discovery of a professionally-managed

organization that provides service to generate and

spread hate speeches. The group, called Saracen,

become the solid proof that the business in this area

was profitable.

The existence of such organization as hate

speech and hoax factory is not unfamiliar. In

Macedonia, as reported by global.liputan6.com,

there are many groups that purposely fabricated fake

news regarding certain president or certain issues to

target on the attentions of the Americans. They can

earn as much as five times more than the average

Hoax as Political Inﬂuence Tool in Indonesia

143

Macedonian income, resulting in the income of

reaching hundreds of millions rupiah a day.

(Prastiwi A M, 2017) The spread of hoax was

organized to purposely cause deep impact on the

audience, to cause anxiety, conflict, arguments, hate

that spread speedily. As such, the Indonesian

government continues to encourage various ways to

overcome hoax in Indonesia.

3.1 Preparation of Construction

Material Phase

The issue trending that plagued Indonesia in 2017,

starting from the end of 2016, was the accusation of

religious blasphemy that drew anger and strong

reactions from the religious believers. During this

period, many media shared many false information

and hoaxes that touch on the religion, race and

ethnicity matter. However, many experts claimed

that these are political attacks because of the Jakarta

governor election. In preparing the construction

materials, the news makers certainly understand the

social condition at that time and what they should

deliver to manoeuvre public opinion toward what the

news makers wish to arrive.

There are three essential things in the preparation

of social construction material, namely:

a. The partiality of mass media toward

capitalism

It is common knowledge that almost all

media companies in Indonesia are owned

by business people or politicians, which

have caused concern about whether the

media will stir public opinion toward the

interest of the owner. In reality, it can

hardly be denied that even the official and

verified media companies have the power

to stir public opinion, although the

monitoring and press ethics can reduce that.

However, if the media company is not even

verified, not subject to any monitoring or

have no sense of responsibility toward the

public, it will certainly affect the news

production. This opens up huge opportunity

to spread hoaxes and hate speech into the

public domain.

b. Pseudo-partiality toward the public

This type of partiality is the form of

empathy, sympathy, and various

participation to the public. In 2017, there

are many media that fabricated about

inequality and unfairness toward certain

person or group that were packaged as if

pro-public, while on the other hand, it was

found that these action could have been the

ways to attract audience to the media and

the contents it offers.

c. Partiality toward public interest

The media has the responsibility to the

public, but on the other hand the media has

to indirectly gain benefit from what it

produces. This dilemma opens up the

opportunities for political actors to offer

benefits. Meanwhile the media that exist in

social media (in the form of pages or group)

can be owned by individuals or a group.

After analyzed, in practice, the hoax

spreader in the social, for example, could

be owned by native who claimed to speak

on behalf of public interest that drive

him/her to share, however implicitly there

was the wish to be known and popular, as

such producing fabricated news to gain

popularity.

3.2 Hoax Construction Spreading

Phase

Mass media construction spreading is done through

mass media strategy. The concrete concept for mass

media spreading can be different for different media,

however the underlying principle is real time. It is

common that mass media social construction

spreading uses one-directional model, whereby the

media deliver the news and the audience has no

other choice but to consume the information. The

basic principle of mass media social construction

spreading is that all information must reach the

audience as fast as possible and as accurately as

possible based on media agenda. What is deemed

important by the media is to be seen as important as

well by audience.

The social media spreading concept also follows

the principle of delivering the information as fast as

possible to the public. However, in practice, it was

found that some of the news were already prepared

beforehand and were set to be published at certain

time. This tends toward propaganda that is tried to

be legitimized in the packaging of news. The

demand for speedily news on certain online media

platform also tends to affect the accuracy of news,

particularly if the news producers are not

professional journalists. However, these news with

questionable accuracy, even hoaxes, produced by

unverified news media gain trust by the audience

who assume that the news are accurate. This matter

will be discussed in the next point.

BINUS-JIC 2018 - BINUS Joint International Conference

144

3.3 Hoax Reality Construction

Forming Phase

When the fake news arrives at the audience, there is

forming of reality construction in the public through

three phases that take place generically:

a. Construction justification as a form of mass

media construction built in the public that

tend to justify whatever information

delivered by the mass media as a reality. In

the other words, information by mass media

is the authority of behaviour to justify

certain event.

This is used by hoax makers. The

justification construction is supported by

constructing seemingly supporting stance

by supporting groups. Even in the case of

Saracen hoax-making group, they pushed

fake news to become viral by faking the

existence of supportive individuals in every

posts. This psychologically will create the

mass justification effect such that even the

real audience will believe in the

information.

b. The second phase in the willingness to be

constructed by mass media, namely the

generic behaviour in the first phase. The

willingness of someone to become mass

media reader is because of his/her choice to

willingly let his/her mind being constructed

by the mass media. The utilization of the

second phase in the online media or social

media is very possible, because fake news

commonly use bombastic or click-bait title

that increase their possibilities to be

consumed.

c. The third phase is making the mass media

consumption as the consumptive choice,

whereby someone individually depends on

the mass media. Mass media has become

integral to his/her lifestyle. In the case of

fake news spreading, it happens when the

readers read and see many comments that

fish reaction in the line of religion,

ethnicity and race, which cause the fake

news to be more popular.

3.4 Image Construction Forming Phase

Image construction by mass media is form in two

models: 1) good news model and 2) bad news

model. Good news model is the construction that

tends to construct news as good news. In this model,

news object is constructed as having good image,

which is better than what the object actually is. In

the case of hoaxes in Indonesia during the Jakarta

governor election, each supporting group has two

options in delivering news. In the good news model,

in 2017 some new mass media glorified one of the

religious persons who were deemed to fight for the

religious blasphemy case; they only mentioned the

good thing about this person while ignoring the

information that he himself also spoke of religious

blasphemy toward other culture and beliefs.

However the media only reported good and

bombastic information about this person and

whoever who have good relationship with this

person also get the good news treatment.

On the contrary, the bad news model is the

construction that tends to construct the weakness or

give negative image toward the object of news such

that the object seems worse, more evil than the

object actually is. It was found that the hoax and

fake news makers employ both models: using the

good news model as defensive shield and bad news

as attacking weapon.

3.5 Hoax Confirmation Phase

According to Burhan Bungin, there are several

common reasons utilized in the confirmation phase,

namely:

a) The modern lifestyle demands the

individual to constantly adapt and become

part of mass media production. As such,

fake news that spread nowadays seem to

utilize this demand for modern person to be

up-to-date and in the know.

b) The proximity with mass media is the

modern lifestyle, whereby modern person

enjoys popularity particularly by being the

subject of the news. The desire to be

popular on social media, coupled with

media illiteracy, become the suitable

combination to be target of fake news and

help fake news to spread faster and wider.

c) Mass media have the ability to construct

reality based on the media subjectivity, but

also has the presence in one’s life as the

unlimited source of knowledge that can be

accessed anytime. The danger is that many

hoax and fake news pretend to be by

credible media or take part of legitimate

news and edit it to be new news to be

spread to their target audience. There are

many illegitimate media that use name that

are very close to the credible media

companies. As more and more members of

Hoax as Political Inﬂuence Tool in Indonesia

145

the public access information from their

social media than accessing directly to the

official and credible news sites, the

selection process drops.

4 CONCLUSION

Hoax in Indonesian news is mostly packaged in the

form of news, infographics, and meme. It mainly

spread through media that appear in social media.

Currently many media sites were prohibited by the

government because they are proven to be spreading

hoax, false news and hate speech on race, ethnicity

and religious issues. This kind of media usually uses

satire-inclined statements and the titles are

bombastic or draw curiosity. Often the content does

not match the title and hoax is spread through social

media like Facebook. Hoax is often in the form of

propaganda, false information, partisan (loyal

supporter), satire, sponsored content, and

conspiration theory. During the hoax construction

material preparation phase on Indonesian media, it is

found that hoaxes are prepared by individuals or

groups that have certain interest. In 2017, hoaxes

were dominated with issues related to the Jakarta

governor regional election (67%), followed by 22%

regarding corruption cases, and 11% on other issues.

In other words, political players used hoax as the

tools to benefit certain parties.

The hoax construction spread massively in

various media in Indonesia, and mostly are

structurally spread in social media for the interest of

certain groups to spread political issue. The use of

social media, such as through Facebook pages or

groups, allow faster, wider spread as well as less-

stringent audience scrutiny compared to the spread

using conventional news sites. The hoax reality

construction in Indonesian media shows that news

contents are directed toward good news and bad

news approach, which drive issues related to race,

ethnicity and religion or hate speech are reported

implicitly, using data-data from big verified media,

but modified and fabricated to include lies so that

the audience often do not realize that the content

contains hoax. Meanwhile, the confirmation phase in

hoax news in Indonesia media shows that there is the

audience is motivated by their desire to be most

updated and popular, hence they are less careful and

less selective in choosing news. Contents that are

designed to be rhetorical and inviting, thus receiving

lots of comments that win more public trust and

become the choice by its audience.

Conversely in Indonesia there’s the need for

collaboration between different stakeholders

including the platform providers, official and

credible media, social organizations, academic

world, and the active participation of the members of

public to overcome hoax. Digital literacy is much

needed so that the vocal-community can correctly

understand during their idea-exchange process in the

digital media without making some issues spread

wide. The public will also need to be more selective

in choosing which media they should consume their

information from, and furthermore will keep our

nation united.

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