Stealing Time?: The Effect of Conscientiousness, Procedural Justice,

and Felt Accountability on Attitude towards Time Theft

Yudis Sekar Prasasti

, Corina Deborah Riantoputra

Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Jawa Barat Indonesia, 16424

Keyword: Felt accountability, time theft, attitude, procedural justice, conscientiousness

Abstract: Time theft results in heavy financial losses and interferes with employees’ sustainable innovation. However,

factors affecting it are relatively unexplored. Advancing theory of counterproductive work behavior, this

paper argues that felt accountability acts as a powerful moderator in the relationship between

conscientiousness and attitude towards time theft among 201 employees with a minimum education level of

associate's degree. The results show that (1) conscientiousness (α = 0.84) and procedural justice (α = 0.91)

have a negative and significant effect on attitude towards time theft, and (2) although felt accountability (α =

0.77) does not have a significant impact on attitude towards time theft (α = 0.86), it decreases the effect that

conscientiousness has on attitude.

1 INTRODUCTION

Organizations need not only profit but also

sustainability, making innovations a key aspect in

every organization. Unfortunately, sustainable

innovation efforts are hampered by employee time

theft behavior, which is defined as production

deviance behavior resulting in the reduction of time

working (Kulas, McInnerney, DeMuth and

Jadwinski, 2007). The fact is, 70% of employees

frequently commit time theft in their productive

working time in the office. Time theft is classified as

a major problem in organizations, because itis

commonly done by employees, causes financial loss

(Henle, Reeve and Pitts, 2010), decreases morality

standards (Liu and Berry, 2013), and is part of

counterproductive work behavior (Henle, Reeve and

Pitts, 2010). The focus of this research is to examine

attitude towards time theft that are positively related

to time theft behavior (Syakina, 2018).

Prior research shows significant relationships

between time theft and various individual variables

such as conscientiousness (Bolton, Becker and

Barbe, 2010), employee satisfaction (Kulas,

McInnerney, DeMuth and Jadwinski, 2007), and

cynicism (Lorinkova and Perry, 2017). Some

situational variables that have been found to have a

significant relationship with attitude towards time

theft are organizational justice (Greenberg, 1990),

perceived behavioral control (Henle, Reeve and

Pitts, 2010) and organizational climate (Kulas,

McInnerney, DeMuth and Jadwinski, 2007). To

understand this phenomenon comprehensively, this

research examines the internal and external

antecedents of time theft. Further, this research

argues that felt accountability is a significant

moderator in the relationship between

conscientiousness and attitude towards time theft.

One of the internal aspects chosen for this

research is felt accountability, which is defined as an

implicit or explicit expectation that one’s decisions

or actions will be subject to evaluation by some

salient audience(s) with the belief that there exists

the potential for one to receive either rewards or

sanctions based on this expected evaluation

(Hochwarter, Ferris, Gavin, Perrewé, Hall and Frink,

2007). Perceptions of high levels of accountability

are likely to indicate that self-interested behavior is

controlled and might lead to preventive action being

taken by the organization (Cohen, 2016). For

example, the presence of job standards, such as

productivity goals and accountability to meet those

goals, are also likely to reduce time banditry

(Martin, Brock, Buckley and Ketchen, 2010). If

effective controls are in place, individuals have a

harder time engaging in counterproductive acts

(Cohen, 2016). Consequently, employees with high

level of felt accountability tend to avoid time theft

Prasasti, Y. and Riantoputra, C.

Stealing Time?: The Effect of Conscientiousness, Procedural Justice, and Felt Accountability on Attitude towards Time Theft.

DOI: 10.5220/0010058800002917

In Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Social Sciences, Laws, Arts and Humanities (BINUS-JIC 2018), pages 615-621

ISBN: 978-989-758-515-9

615

because they know that time theft evaluation will

result in penalties and sanctions.

H1 : Felt accountability negatively affects

attitude towards time theft.

Another individual aspect chosen is

conscientiousness because it is the strongest

indicator of counterproductive work behavior

(Chang and Smithikrai, 2010). Conscientiousness is

the degree to which a person is ambitious,

responsible, abides by ethical principles, and

considers the consequences of behavior before

acting (Eschleman, Bowling and LaHuis, 2015).

Conscientiousness is an important virtue for every

employee. Compared to those who are low in

conscientiousness, highly conscientious persons tend

to be more motivated to perform well on the job

(Judge and Ilies, 2002) and therefore are likely to

achieve better performance through careful

planning, goal setting, and persistence (Le, Oh,

Robbins, Ilies, Holland and Westrick, 2011).

High conscientiousness employee tends to be

ordered, controlled, organized, ambitious,

achievement focused, and self-disciplined (Feist and

Feist, 2008). These characteristics help people to

complete tasks, to be generally rule-abiding, and to

avoid impulsive behavior. Because

counterproductive work behavior (including time

theft) often involves a lack of effort, the failure to

follow organizational rules, or impulse-driven

actions, workers who are high in conscientiousness

are likely to avoid these behaviors (Bowling, Burns,

Stewart and Gruys, 2011). Furthermore,

conscientious individuals are noted for their

dependability and achievement orientation, and

therefore are more likely to have good capability to

regulate his/her behavior to follow organizational

norms and rules (Bolton, Becker and Barber, 2010).

A study on 234 employees from USA confirms that

conscientiousness has a negative relationship with

many kinds of counterproductive work behavior,

such as withdrawal and sabotage (Bolton, Becker

and Barber, 2010). Therefore, by extension, we

hypothesize that:

H2 : Conscientiousness negatively affects

attitude towards time theft.

Interestingly, there is an indication that

employees with high conscientiousness are more

likely to commit time theft as a form of

counterproductive work behavior towards

organization in certain situations, for example, when

there is no other way of solving problems and when

their personal resources are threatened (Eschleman,

Bowling and LaHuis, 2015). This means that there is

also an indication that conscientiousness has a

significant effect on counterproductive work

behavior towards organization, and by extension,

may affect time theft. Therefore, research on the

relationship between conscientiousness and various

kinds of counterproductive work behavior should

show other variables that interact with

conscientiousness to more comprehensively explain

the dynamic connections between the two variables.

We argue that felt accountability potentially acts

as a moderator in the relationship between

conscientiousness and attitude towards time theft.

Felt accountability interacts with individual

characteristics and contextual factors that affect the

decision making and behaviors of employees

(Lerner and Tetlock, 1999). That is, individuals in

power who know they will be accountable for

something are more likely to consider social

consequences and take others’ interests into account.

This condition indicates that the presence of felt

accountability in employees who have high

conscientiousness makes them less likely to commit

time theft even in urgent situations, because they

understand that rewards or punishments will be

given based on evaluations of their behavior. The

evaluation is important for conscientious employees

because they have high achievement orientation

(Bolton, Becker and Barber, 2010). Therefore, felt

accountability is the most suitable moderator in the

relationship between conscientiousness and time

theft.

H3 : Felt accountability moderates the effect of

conscientiousness on attitude towards time theft.

Specifically, felt accountability increases the

negative effect of conscientiousness on attitude

towards time theft.

The external aspect chosen is perceived

organizational justice because it is one of the

strongest external predictors of counterproductive

work behavior (Krischer, Penney and Hunter, 2010).

Perceived organizational justice refers to perceived

fairness of interactions between individuals and

organizations (Krischer, Penney and Hunter, 2010).

Two of the most widely studied forms of

organizational justice are distributive justice

(perceived fairness of reward allocation) and

procedural justice (perceived fairness of the

processes by which decisions are made) (Krischer,

Penney and Hunter, 2010). This research only

focuses on procedural justice because it is the

strongest predictor for counterproductive work

BINUS-JIC 2018 - BINUS Joint International Conference

616

behavior (Devonish and Greenidge, 2010). An

empirical study on 211 employees across nine

organizations from the private and public sectors in

a developing country in the Caribbean shows that,

compared to other forms of organizational justice,

procedural justice has the strongest relationship with

the counterproductive work behavior towards

organizations (Devonish and Greenidge, 2010).

The relationship between procedural justice

and time theft is explained well by the social

exchange theory, with one of its basic tenets that for

relationships to evolve over time, they need trust,

loyalty, and mutual commitments. To do so, parties

must abide by certain “rules” of exchange. In this

way, rules and norms of exchange are “the

guidelines” of exchange processes (Cropanzano and

Mitchell, 2005). Individuals tend to do to others

what they perceive the other parties do to them. That

is, they maintain that, "If they treat me well, I am

going to treat them well". In addition, consideration

of fairness and justice comes to play (Stafford,

2008). In a workplace context, when employees

perceive that their organizations treat them well,

they tend to avoid time theft or other

counterproductive work behaviors. Specifically, it is

contended that perceived injustice of any type may

relate to counterproductive work behavior because

employees who feel unfairly treated may reduce

their cooperative behaviors to avoid exploitation

(Jones, 2009). Because perceived procedural justice

is mostly influenced by the way an organization acts

towards employee, a lack of it may lead to

counterproductive work behavior towards

organization, including time theft (Jones, 2009).

H4: Procedural justice negatively affects attitude

towards time theft.

2 METHOD

2.1 Sample and Procedure

Figure 1: Hypothetical Model (Note: (+) Positive

Prediction and (-) Negative Prediction).

We managed to collect 82 responses from an online

questionnaire and 119 responses from an offline

questionnaire. The sample (59.7% male and 40.3%

female) came from a variety of organization types,

which are categorized into two groups:

government (49.3%) and non-government (50.7%),

to simplify the statistical analysis. With regard to

their employee status, 60.2% were permanent and

39.8% were non-permanent employees. The range of

their job tenure was from 3 months to 36 years, and

their lowest educational degree was an associate's

degree. Having an associate's degree as the lowest

level of educational attainment was necessary

because employees with lower educational levels

tend to commit time theft more than those with high

education levels (Ganzach, 1998).

2.2 Measurement

All instruments used in this research were adapted

from previous studies' instruments, the validity of

which had been tested. Adaptation was done by

performing a back translation on previously

translated instruments. Before data collection, a pilot

study was conducted and some items were revised to

enhance their psychometric attributes. Every

instrument had a 6-point Likert scale (strongly

disagree to strongly agree). Reliability analysis for

all instruments used the internal consistency method,

with good reliability indicated by a score between

0.7 and 0.8 (Kaplan and Saccuzzo, 2005). Further,

we also assessed the Standardized Root Mean

Square Residual (SRMR). A good SRMR score

should be below 0.8 (Henseler, Hubona and Ray,

2016). Based on those standards, all instruments

used in this research were found to have good

reliability and SRMR scores, indicating all items in

each instrument were fit to measure the intended

construct.

2.2.1 Attitude towards Time Theft

Attitude towards time theft was measured using a

case-scenario questionnaire (α = 0.86, SRMR =

0.13), which is a questionnaire that presents some

cases and then asks participants to respond to the

cases. Cases pertaining to time theft in an Indonesian

context were used (Syakina, 2018). One example is

a case of an employee extending meal break by

saying he/she needs time to pray. Every scenario is

then followed by eight statements adapted from time

theft survey (Kulas, McInnerney, DeMuth and

Jadwinski, 2007).Example items are: “In my

opinion, that behavior is not acceptable” or “In my

Stealing Time?: The Effect of Conscientiousness, Procedural Justice, and Felt Accountability on Attitude towards Time Theft

617

opinion, that behavior is counterproductive” (reverse

coded).

2.2.2 Conscientiousness

Conscientiousness was measured using a

questionnaire (α = 0.84, SRMR = 0.13). An example

of the items is: “I pay attention to details” (Frink and

Ferris, 1999).

2.2.3 Felt Accountability

Felt Accountability was measured using a

questionnaire (α = 0.77, SRMR = 0.08). A sample

item is: “I am held accountable for my actions at

work” (Hochwarter, Ferris, Gavin, Perrewé, Hall

and Frink, 2007).

2.2.4 Procedural Justice

Procedural justice was measured using a

questionnaire (α = 0.91, SRMR = 0.03). An example

of one of the items is: “I can count on my

organization to have fair policies” (Fuchs, 2011).

3 RESULT

Bi-correlation analysis results are shown in Table 1.

From this table, it is evident that gender is related to

attitude towards time theft (r = 0.21, p < 0.01),

which requires control over its effect in the first step

of the regression analysis. Therefore, we conducted

a two-step regression analysis. In the first step,

gender functioned as the independent variable. In the

second step, standardized mean scores of

conscientiousness, felt accountability, procedural

justice, and the interaction between

conscientiousness sand felt accountability acted as

independent variables. The results from the second

step of regression yielded R

= 0.38, which indicates

that 38% of the variance of attitude towards time

theft can be explained by the model proposed. Felt

Accountability was not found to affect attitude

towards time theft (β = -0.03, ns), and therefore H1

is not supported. Meanwhile, conscientiousness

negatively affects attitude towards time theft (β = -

0.29, p < 0.01), thus providing support for H2.

Table 1: Bi-correlation.

ean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. Felt Accountabilit

4.73 0.66 -

2.Conscientiousness 4.76 0.85 0.26** -

3. Procedural Justice 4.27 1.18 0.37** 0.04 -

4. Attitude towards Time Theft 2.84 0.84 -0.17* -0.27** -0.36** -

5. Gende

0.40 0.49 0.26** 0.06 0.09 0.21** -

6. Or

anization T

0.49 0.50 0.02 -0.08 0.06 -0.05 0.04 -

7. Em

ee Status

0.60 0.50 0.07 -0.12 0.05 0.13 0.13 -0.1 -

8. Tenure

1.06 1.27 0.10 -0.01 0.11 -0.15* 0.01 0.67 0.25 -

Note: N=201. *p<0.05, **p<0.01.

0=Female, 1=Male.

0=Non-Government Organization, 1=Government Organization.

0=Non-Permanent, 1=Permanent.

0=0-2 years, 1=3-5 years, 2=6-10 years, 3=Above 10 years

Figure 2: Slope Analysis.

Felt accountability is a significant moderator in the

effect of conscientiousness on attitude towards time

theft (β = -0.15, p <0.01). Based on the slope

analysis in Figure 2, it can be seen that conscientious

employees with high felt accountability have more

negative attitudes towards time theft (against time

theft) than conscientious employees with low felt

accountability (H3 is supported). Lastly, procedural

justice negatively affects attitudes towards time theft

(β = -0.33, p < 0.01) (H4 is supported).

BINUS-JIC 2018 - BINUS Joint International Conference

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4 DISCUSSION

First, this research successfully built and tested

hypotheses about individual and organizational

factors influencing attitude towards time theft. The

result shows that there are two factors that

independently affect attitude towards time theft

(conscientiousness and procedural justice),

suggesting that organizations need to pay attention

to both factors to prevent time theft. We extended

the results of a research in Malaysia that showed

negative effects of conscientiousness on time theft

among undergraduate students. The current research

demonstrates that this negative effect is also

prevalent in workers (not only students) (Hafidz,

2012). Further, differing from other research

(Hafidz, 2012) that used a survey questionnaire, the

current research employed a case-scenario

questionnaire. Given the consistency of the finding,

there is a strong indication that the negative effect of

conscientiousness on attitude towards time theft is

stable across cultures, types of participants (students

and employees),as well as types of instruments (case

scenario and usual survey). Moreover, the

significant relationship between procedural justice

and attitude towards time theft aligns with the result

of a survey carried out in Canada on 424 employed

students, which examined the relationship between

types of injustice and general counterproductive

work behavior (such as time theft, and property

theft) (Jones, 2009). Taken together these

consistency indicates the importance of individual

and organizational factors in counterproductive work

behaviour. However, further research is needed to

confirm this assumption.

Second, this research contributes to the current

understanding of factors influencing attitude towards

time theft by showing that felt accountability acts as

a significant moderator in the negative effect of

conscientiousness on attitude towards time theft.

With high levels of felt accountability, conscientious

employees’ tendency to commit time theft is lower

because interaction between felt accountability and

conscientiousness increases employee’s personal

sense of power. Individuals with high sense of

personal power tend to act in in socially appropriate

ways (Keltner, Gruenfeld and Anderson, 2003), such

as not doing time theft.

Table 2: Moderated Regression Analysis.

Step 1 Step 2

B SE Β

BSE

Gende

0.36 0.12 0.21** 3.06 0.48 0.11 0.28** 4.46

Felt accountabilit

(FA)

-0.04 0.09 -0.03 -0.42

Conscientiousness (C)

-0.29 0.06 -0.29** -4.53

Procedural

ustice (PJ)

-0.23 0.05 -0.33** -4.83

C x FA

-0.12 0.05 -0.15** -2.28

(1,199) =9.33

(5,195) = 15.21

chan

e Δ

(1,199) = 9.33 Δ

(4,195) = 15.97

0.05 0.38

chan

e 0.05 0.24

Note: Significance at: *p<0.05, **p<0.01

Third, this research highlights the importance of

gender in attitude towards time theft. Analysis

shows that male participants tend to have a more

positive attitude towards time theft compared to their

female counterparts. This result is consistent with a

survey (Henle, 2005) conducted in USA on 272

psychology and business undergraduate students,

that examines some antecedents of general

counterproductive work behaviortoward other

people (such as bullying) and toward organization

(such as withdrawal, and sabotage). It found that

male participants are more frequent to do

counterproductive work behavior. More research is

needed to uncover why and when gender affect

counterproductive behavior.

Our study leads to several practical implications.

First, companies should hire employees with high

conscientiousness to fill positions in which

committing time theft is a big possibility. Highly

conscientious employees have strong inhibitive

tendencies that deter destructive behavior. Their

thoughtful and planned nature drives them to

consider the consequences of deviant behavior, and

their concern for moral obligations preclude them

from engaging in behaviors that violate their

integrity (Mawritz, Dust and Resick 2014). Second,

it is recommended that companies attempt to

Stealing Time?: The Effect of Conscientiousness, Procedural Justice, and Felt Accountability on Attitude towards Time Theft

619

increase employees' perceptions of justice to reduce

time theft because according to the social exchange

theory, employees will ‘return’ the justice offered by

the organization by avoiding time theft (Cropanzano,

Prehar and Chen, 2002). Third, companies should

consider introducing an intervention to increase felt

accountability, such as through peer and supervisor

reviews on employees' time theft behavior and

applying sanctions based on the reviews. Those

three practices may support sustainable development

goals by facilitating employees to use their time

effectively and contribute more to general economic

growth.

4.1 Conclusion

This study examines the effect of conscientiousness,

felt accountability, procedural justice, and the

interaction effect of conscientiousness and felt

accountability on attitude towards time theft. The

results show that conscientiousness and procedural

justice negatively affect attitude towards time theft,

and the interaction effect of accountability weakens

the effect of conscientiousness on attitude towards

time theft. The current research advances literature

on counterproductive behavior by showing that felt

accountability acts as a powerful moderator to

increase productive work behavior. Thus, this

research contributes to the sustainable development

goal, especially the 8

goal on economic growth, by

suggesting that companies should be attention on

variables such as conscientiousness, procedural

justice and felt accountability. By controlling such

variables, employees are expected to avoid time

theft and have more time to be productive and

innovative.

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