Freedom of Speech Backlash: Securitization Analysis of Indonesia

Hate Speech Group

Arimadona

Faculty of Political and Social Sciences, University of Indonesia

Keywords: hate speech, democracy, freedom of speech, critical constructivism, securitization, social media

Abstract: This academic writing explains the possibility of new securitization in Indonesia. Securitization is one of

the ways to turn nonpolitical issue politicized. The study case in this writing is the hate speech phenomenon

that recently has become the main issues in Indonesia media masses. Responding the statement of hate

speech can be threat for nation’s resilience and sovereignty, National Police with the support of National

Agency of Combating Terrorism will have to do a follow up regarding the notion. Saracen as one of the hate

speech actors who exploit social media is one of the examples how strong the Internet influence in the

globalization era. Freedom of speech happened in Indonesia 19 years ago now facing new challenge in this

new phenomenon of this hate speech as threat spectacle. Establishing penalty is being considered.

Securitization process by Barry Buzan will be applied to analyze the study. The main aim in this writing is

to see the degree of securitization process in hate speech issue in Indonesia among others securitized issues

that been happened before like illegal fishing or terrorism.

1 INTRODUCTION

Since the colonial era, Indonesia national heroes use

the powerful speech to inspire the society to work in

independence. Basic of spirit that Indonesian citizen

get when gain the independence is surely come from

strong voices that national heroes echoing

throughout Indonesia. Every political speech not

only become the spirit burner for the citizen but also

made the colonials actively aware of Indonesian

independence aimed by society. Propaganda, the

word describes more than simple act of inspiring

society to work on independence. But now we face

different era after independence. Propaganda now

can be held by anyone in charge of power.

Propaganda now simply is hate speech inside the

freedom of speech that brought by democracy and

liberalism values. Sovereignty and nation resilience

in the stake of this hate speech phenomenon.

Indonesia with its diverse race, religion, and ethnic

is rich but in the same time is fragile of small

fraction that lead to act of destruction.

Mass media and social media become the arena

declaring argument and aspiration from society. For

example, Facebook and Instagram that already

become the part of Indonesian life. Indonesia consist

of 45 million active Instagram users. Facebook users

in Indonesia reach 87,75 million increasing

significantly from 2008. This number expected to be

100 million by 2018. This number is not included

the other social media streams like WhatsApp

Messenger, LINE, Telegram, and Blackberry

Messenger. Some of mass media portal also give a

big window opportunity to deliver news that contain

both positive and negative information.

Writer try to demonstrate that in developing state

or developed state the response of hate of speech is

quite different. In the United States of America or in

European States, hate speech sometimes seen as

discussion material of the state basic regulation.

Singapore or African States have its own regulation

to overcome the danger of hate speech. In Indonesia

itself, the case of Saracen or Jonru Ginting getting

more intense when its reached the hate speech for

the present President Joko Widodo.

More in the analysis, writer would like to

describe the hate speech in the views of

securitization and constructivist. Indonesian

National Police will take into action when the hate

speech reaches the major destruction in the effect

way speaking. The stabilization of state become at

the stake if we know that Indonesia just become

open into freedom of speech regulation in 19 years

158

Arimadona, .

Freedom of Speech Backlash: Securitization Analysis of Indonesia Hate Speech Group.

DOI: 10.5220/0010274600002309

In Proceedings of Airlangga Conference on International Relations (ACIR 2018) - Politics, Economy, and Security in Changing Indo-Paciﬁc Region, pages 158-166

ISBN: 978-989-758-493-0

ago. To have a boundary on freedom of speech lead

to make a border into human rights to the people.

Especially in democracy state like Indonesia.

2 METHODS

Securitization analysis method by Barry Buzan will

be use in this writing. It is to see how urgent the hate

speech to be made as policy to overcome it. We can

see that illegal fishing become one of securitized

issue lately. Hate speech as next securitized issue is

important to be discussed more because as

understood from securitization process, hate speech

is far from military or force act that lead into

traditional security threat. Securitization process

will be showed by the actor whom doing the speech

act with public as a witness. Legalized actor in this

case is government and authorities now leading into

more serious stage and working into independent

law of hate speech or more into it special agency to

handle it.

Constructivism and securitization are

complementary to one another. Security in its

general sense is a social construction. There are

identities and norms governing what is meant as an

act of displeasure. The Critical constructivist sees a

connection between political leaders and domestic

audiences in many ways, specifically in the language

tricks, to define something as an important matter

and to issue its security policy (Williams, 2013).

Up until today Indonesia has been successfully

implementing securitization in the field of maritime

and terrorism. The source of threat in maritime cases

is visibly appears from piracy and the threat of

sovereignty emerges due to other undesirable

interventions. Terrorism is also a securitization issue

with the sovereignty threat source comes from

radical groups. The threat level of these two issues is

very critical because since the emergence of the

issue, there are laws formulated in the form of

Presidential Regulation No.16 of 2017 on

Indonesian Marine Policy. BNPT under the

coordination of Coordinating Minister for Political,

Legal and Security Affairs was established in 2010.

Both of these issues succeeded in attracting the

attention of the domestic and international

community hence it is ratified by the government

hence there can be capable institutions and laws to

regulate it. Ratifying these two issues means the

necessity to publicize the mentioned regulations.

International cooperation is also done by

establishing diplomatic relations with countries that

have the same issues and those who are very critical

of this issue.

Eko Sulistyo, as Deputy of Political

Communications and Information Dissemination

Office Staff of the President, mentions that Adolf

Hitler is a god of hatred. Mein Kampf book is an

expression of hatred followed by bloody programs

and terror portrayed on every page. Josseph Gobbels

as his loyal followers also stated that the hate speech

conveyed by Hitler is contained by bunch of lies,

however because of the continuous and systematical

campaign, will later appear as the truth. Systematic

and widespread organized hate speech to create a

hate-based crime is what creates a humanitarian

tragedy (Sulistyo, 2017).

A democratic sovereign state is the final result of

the world system of government. Achieving

Indonesian democracy is not without an effort. The

system of government has begun since imperialist,

communist, until finally resulted in democracy. One

of the privileges or weaknesses of democracy lies

beyond the freedom of speech. Democracy as a form

of Liberal government must defend its sovereignty

by considering all the interests of its people. The

interests of individuals above the interests of the

state as one form of Kantianism become one of the

requirements of the sovereignty of the state that

embraces the system of democratic government.

The United States as a Liberalist also has a court

history regarding the hate speech. The freedom to

express opinions as the First Amendment of the

United States is limited in cases involving language

games to offend or degrade groups based on race,

color, religion, national origin, sexual orientation,

disability, etc. (Head, 2017). This hate speech case

has been started since World War II to date. The

most visible example is the case of the Brandenburg

(Representative of the Ku Klux Klan) in 1969 who

gave a speech to overthrow the government. In the

aftermath of the 9/11 case there was also the case of

the Synder family demanding the Phelps church to

spread the wrath of homosexuals.

The cases do not end with the laws governing the

hate speech. It is also connected to the fact of the

absence of legislation regarding the prohibition of

expressing false opinions. The case of Brandenburg

ends with an imminent lawless action or an action

without a legal basis. Freedom of expression is the

basis of the hate speech-dispersion team in winning

the case. Phelps church authorities were also

released because freedom of speech was one of their

amendments.

One of the closest countries to Indonesia that has

been sovereign is Singapore. Singapore as a

Freedom of Speech Backlash: Securitization Analysis of Indonesia Hate Speech Group

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multicultural country has several rules preventing

speech that has the potential to cause disharmony

between its community and government. The rules

of detention to perpetrators are set out in The

Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act (MRHA).

Behavior that is considered political, subversive, or

an actions in which expressing dislike to the

president or government under the guise of religious

propaganda will get sanctioned.

South Africa as one example of a developing

country declares hate speech as one of the

propaganda rules set forth in the constitution. This

hate speech regulation is governed by The

Promotion of Equality and Prevention of the Unfair

Discrimination Act. As a developing country, South

Africa cares deeply about this by emphasizing

injuria crimen as a serious and intentional act of

harassing the dignity of others although not

governed by law. It is including painful physical

acts, or act that will cause violence, and propagate

hatred.

Indonesian police managed to uncover Saracen's

hate speech spreader syndicate. Starting from the

arrest of Sri Rahayu Ningsih on August 5, 2017 for

being a defendant of insult to President Jokowi.

Once captured, the Facebook account used by Sri

was still active. This account has been taken over by

the investigator but restored by Jaspriadi Saracen.

Jaspriadi was later arrested by cyber investigators

for illegal access. The arrest of Saracen Jaspriadi,

who was a suspect in the case of illegal access to

Facebook account, turned out to lead to another

arrest related to three other people who hold

background as the perpetrators of hate speech cases.

They are a group of people in the Saracens

alliance who allegedly have been spreading hate

speech and hoax that suggest the element of SARA.

The Saracens operate professionally. They prepared

a proposal in which each proposal worth up to ten of

millions of rupiah. Market buying and selling

content hate speech and SARA is still undisclosed,

but the police have posessed communication

evidence of those four perpetrators.

Once a project proposal is agreed upon, the

offender will share the task. There are some who in

the affirmative party and oppositional team. Hate

speech in the name of religion for instance, there

will be thousands of accounts to be made in charge

of vilifying Islam and thousands of other accounts

that vilify Christianity. Memes and narrations

uploaded to social media are provocative and

propagated in the fictional group they create

themselves

3 FREEDOM OF SPEECH IN

DEMOCRACY STATES

The writer will show the democratic example of

scholars from a liberal democratic country, that is

the United States. Max Ascoli expressed the

importance of the Amendment of the Constitution

and the Declaration of Independence as a

community revolution. Society has the freedom to

express opinions as a mean to oppose tyranny of

oppression by political actors or despotic rulers.

Backed by amendments and legislation, political

actors or despotic rulers will gain knowledge and

shame that what they do makes the people miserable

or displeased by their actions. Knowledge and

discomfort or shame to the fact that they are not

capable enough, is expected to be a feedback in their

running of government.

Francis Biddle in his journal Freedom of Speech

and Propaganda describes the importance of speech

as a tool for equating opinions (Biddle, 1940).

Freedom of speech is departing from the long

history of Liberty United States. This Liberty can be

a weapon that can be approved or won or defeated.

Freedom of opinion and publicity through the media

is an option without pressure from any party.

Biddle states that freedom of expression and

dissemination through the media in democracy is not

a result of history. During the reign of Henry VII,

the printing company was used as a tool of royal

publication. The function of this printing turned into

a tool to make peace in the community during a war.

Justice Roberts in Biddle states that the function of

printing to spread peace in favor of individual

freedom should also be limited so that freedom is

only done to maintain security.

Indonesia as a democracy country is also not less

interesting. The history of Indonesia during the New

Order period shows the dangers that occur to any

party expressing an opinion. Heryanto and Adi

(2001) show the mass media revolution as a medium

to deliver news and opinions that previously had

been closed by the government but eventually rose.

The dominance of Indonesian politics was very

influential during the New Order period. Under the

current government, despite the democratic system

of government, mass media are required to filter

their content. The content of the news that expresses

a sense of dislike to the government will get

justification as an aberration and will get penalty in

the form of the shutting of some mass media.

Democracy with this restriction met its new light in

post-New Order. After the end of Suharto’s reign

and because of the development of the internet, mass

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media through the media portal increasingly free to

preach events in the community

4 CRITICAL CONSTRUCTIVISM

OF HATE SPEECH

Post structuralist thought as a broad basic thought of

critical constructivism. The understanding of the

urgency of hate speech translated into political

language. By that interpretation of public and

become better represented. The threat and danger

definition should be made to upgrade consciousness

and awareness. Deciding the meaning of an action

best using the discourse analysis that define as:

“systems of meaningful practices that form the

identities of subjects and objects” (Howarth and

Stavrakakis, 2000). Discourse commonly refers to

words, but can also include other data such as

visual images, material objects and social

institutions.(People, Vaughan-Williams, 2015, p.6)

Definition of discourse analysis of Peoples and

Vaughan-Williams means that discourse in critical

constructivism as an objective value. Knowledge is a

practice to give a meaning into issues and action.

Action of giving an argument in democratic

states declared as a normal act. Mass media that we

all know now like newspaper, television, online

news, social media stream, and all kind of

communication through smartphones can be medium

of delivering argument. If it is pictured, information

that flows in every stream will be processed like

this:

Figure 1: Critical Constructivist Discourse Analysis (See Reference for Image Sources).

Using language or political strategy with

measured aim will positively affected and society

will affirm the meaning with political understanding

that threating and supposed to be taken care of.

Political way that not wanted will not be delivered

smoothly into public and will be misunderstood and

misleading the threat actual meaning.

The act that given meaning must be contained

political meaning to be securitized. Without political

meaning the act will not be acknowledge as a

political system but knowing as hoax. Political actor

that declared that issue is a threat with support from

society, will escalated quickly so the issue will be

considered. Issue that politized will give a space in

the public policy that need decision from the

authorities and policy allocation.

5 LEGAL REVIEW ON HATE

SPEECH

Every country in the World has laws governing the

hate speech. In Indonesia, the articles governing hate

speech acts are contained in the Chief of Police No:

SE/06/X/2015. The articles governing the hate

speech are contained in the Criminal Code, the ITE

Law (Information and Electronic Transactions), and

the Law on the Elimination of Racial and Ethnic

Discrimination. In accordance with the Criminal

Code, the form of hate speech is defamation,

humiliation, disrespect, provocation, instigation, and

spreading false news (Soesilo, 1991, p. 225).

In the circular of the Chief of Police Number

SE/06/X/2015 explaines the notion of hate speech.

Hate speech has a purpose that affects

discrimination, violence, disappearance, and social

conflict. The media used as hate speech places are

also arranged in the circular of the Chief of Police.

The media in question are; (1) oration in campaign

activities, (2) banners, (3) social media networking,

(4) public opinion/demonstration, (5) religious

Presentation:

Political

Language

•Precise

• Undesireabl

Audience:

Interpretation

• Positive

• Negative

Purpose:

Representation

•Achieved

• Failed

Achieved:

Securitized

and Legalized

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lecture, (6) mass media print or electronic, and (7)

pamphlets.

The scope of hate speech belongs to a crime of

honor or humiliation. Honor and reputation become

human rights, so only humans are the subject of a

circular. Animal who has names is not going to be

included as the subject of our paper this time.

According to the Chief of Police circular letter, hate

speech is included in Article 156 of the Criminal

Code, Article 157 paragraph (1) and (2) of the

Criminal Code, Article 310 Paragraph (1), (2), and

(3) Penal Code, Article 311 KUHP (Criminal code)

(1) Law No.11 of 2008 on Information and

Electronic Transactions, and Law No.40 of 2008.

As long as there is no special institution that

regulates the hate speech, the government with the

police intermediaries will follow up the hate speech

by using the above articles. Penalties earned by the

perpetrators also vary up to the level, for example

Article 156 of the Criminal Code (KUHP) which

states the imprisonment of a maximum of four years

or a fine of at most four thousand five hundred

rupiah until the 11th of 2008 ITE Law stating the

perpetrators of false and misleading and inciting

hatred or hostility towards individuals and/or

community groups based on tribe, religion, race, and

in between groups (SARA) shall be subjected to a

maximum imprisonment of six years or a maximum

fine of Rp 1,000,000 (one billion rupiah).

6 HATE SPEECH IN

SECURITIZATION

Broto Wardoyo (2015), one of the former faculty of

International Relations, presents the concept of

securitization derived from Ole Wæver.

Securitization comes from discursive construction of

security threats. Security itself was originally a

mutually agreed social construction. Threats that

originated from non-military, then turned into a

threat to security. Turning a social action into a

security threat requires elements that are mutually

agreed upon.

Securitization requires a process until an actor

can declare an issue into a threat. This process

involves actors from government and society. There

are three things related to securitization according to

Wardoyo (2015):

1. Security is something that is constructed and

not an absolute thing.

2. Security is a political process. The issue that

was not a security issue changed urgently into a

security issue.

3. Security remains a state affair as a provider.

The object of securitization is a threatened

object. Examples of such objects include the state,

government, and society. Here is a securitization

flow diagram

Figure 2 :Diagram of Securitization Process.

The legitimated securitization actor will do the

construction as a threatened object. It needs the same

perception among actors and audience so as to

strengthen the effect of speech act. Functional actors

who have an interest in the conduct of speech act are

political leaders, bureaucrats, government and lobby

groups. Speech Act is a facilitating condition that

determines the success of securitization actors to

convey to the audience of the apperance of threats.

The example given by Broto Wardoyo is the

influence of Bush's speech to the United States

public that the threat of terrorism is an issue that

must be followed up immediately.

The war of interest as a public rationality also

happen in agreeing that an issue can be seen as a

threat. As Barry Buzan mentioned:

“contradictions between individual security and

national security and national security lead not only

to specific policy issues of defence and deterrence,

but also to broader policy questions such as human

rights” (Barry Buzan, 1991)

Securitization is about issues that blocked human

rights especially the rights of speech clearly seen as

a standing block to rationalized hate speech issue as

a security issue. In the other hand policy to ratified

hate speech as a threat to sovereignty of the nation

will help destruction and disunity to society.

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Securitization invites criticism because there are

conflicts with interests and morality. The arguments

are; first, the securitization used by state actors will

cause irregularities because it utilizes the previously

unknown threat to exist in the middle of the society.

These new threats put pressure on commune

activities and routines. Secondly, securitization as a

security issue causes widespread security issues.

Widespread security issues re-question the essence

of the security issue itself. Thirdly, as Floyd's

mentions, it deals with moral issues and

environmental issues (Broto, 2015). The

securitization of environmental issues is the result of

consequentialism by looking at the consequences

when a rule is done or not done the impact will be

negative or positive.

7 CASE ANALYSIS

The case analyzes that the writer carries out depart

from the flow chart offered by the securitization

diagram. There are three important things until a

non-thread action is declared as threat and legalized.

Three things are; (1) legitimate actors as

representatives of the rulers, or in this case the

country who feel that hate speech acts as a threat to

the state's sovereignty, (2) the public as a judging

audience will either approve or disapprove of such

action as aberrations and threats to the sovereignty

of the state, (3) Speech Act as the determining factor

for the delivery of speeches and meaning to the

public that will be elaborated further.

Figure 3 : Application of Hate Speech Securitization

There must be a legitimate actor in a hate speech

case that acts as a party representing the government

so hate speech can be secured and ratified as an

unlawful act. In the case of Indonesia there are

government actors armed with the Criminal Code

and the 1945 Constitution which justifies the act of

hate speech as a violation of the law. In the Criminal

Code and the Constitution there is justification for

any act that is declared as a violation of the law and

there are consequences for perpetrators of

irregularities or offenders.

If anyone states that the action is a threat, there

must be a party who feels threatened by the action.

The public or the audience as the recipient and later

must apply his affirmation to the new rules should

make rational considerations. Such rational thought

must necessarily be taken into the account of the

rights of the individual as a democratic Indonesian

citizen. Approving new laws legalized by new law

enforcement means that their right to express

opinions is limited. However, the public may declare

a rejection of the establishment of institutions and

implementers of discourse rules. As a result, there

will be individuals who will spread the hatred of

individuals, groups, as well as those submitted by

political actors.

Armed with the experience of arresting

perpetrators of violations of the Criminal Code and

the Constitution both individual and groups, this

hate speech will use the media and other means to

convey an opinion that if at the table will not violate

the law. Rejection by the public or the audience will

result in the shock of Indonesian sovereignty.

Conflict between groups of people based on race,

religion, tribe, and others will become more heated.

Given the people of Indonesia with the composition

of race, religion, tribe, and social groups are

different from Sabang to Merauke.

Speech Act is a facilitator to convey the gravity

of a previously non-threaded situation into a thread

for sovereignty. As in the case above, the

government publishes to the media the existence of

hate speech as a threat of sovereignty. Such

publications include hate speech acts as a violation

of the law, which indicates government regulations

to indict perpetrators as perpetrators, and unlawful

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consequences. Today's society is very much using

electronic media as a source of information.

Therefore, the government can simply publish the

news on TV, radio, and internet to show legal

consequences for violation of law in the form of hate

speech.

Table 1: Cases of Indonesian Securitizations.

Threats Legitimate Actor Speech Act Public / Audience Securitization

Terror from

radical group,

bombing, fire

arms shootings,

etc.

Indonesian

National Police,

Indonesian

National Armed

Forces, Minister

for Political,

Legal, and

Securit

Affairs

Deradicalization,

Public speaking by

legitimate actors

Domestic Mass,

perpretrators-

wanna be,

international mass

Anti Terrorism

Law, Presidential

Regulation no.12

/2012 (BNPT)

Illegal fishing,

Illegal mining,

Human

Trafficking,

Arms Illegal

Trades

Indonesian Navy,

Polairud, Minister

of Maritime and

Fisheries Affairs

Mass Media

Publication:

Urgency, The

Urgent of

Sovereignity,

roclamation

Domestic Mass,

International and

Regional Mass,

Presidential

Regulation RI

No.16/2017

(Indonesian

Maritime Axis

Polic

)

Hate Speech,

hatred oration,

vilify people/

groups

Indonesian

National Police,

Political Actors,

State Soverei

Mass Educating,

Mass Counseling,

Public Speaking by

itimate Actors

Domestic Mass,

Perpretrators

Expectancy: Anti

Hate Speech Law,

Legalized

Institutional

The completion of hate speech to be official

Presidential Regulation will give a new obstacle in

political world and democracy in Indonesia.

Indonesian National Police will do preventive and

repressive action in overcome activity that potential

of making hate speech more popular. Sanction of the

violator of this regulation will be punished as

mentioned in ratified document. Government in this

case is the authoritative agency whom trusted by

government will arrange both the regulation and

sanction that need as a response to this issue.

8 CONCLUSION

Hate speech can be affected some more problem like

violation of human rights from different degrees.

Hitler as an extreme example how delivering

argument in public with anger and hatred whether it

is containing right or wrong content, thus is

dangerous. More on it, Hitler demonstrate how far

hatred he create can trigger international world even

lead to war. United States as another example, the

most powerful liberal and democratic states which

give freedom to its citizen to declare every argument

as a part of their constitution, give no sanction to the

action done by its citizen regarding freedom of

speech. As a contrast, in the developing states like

African states or even Singapore with its democratic

values, made border for its citizen in delivering

freedom of speech.

Freedom of speech that Indonesia have in its

democracy that no more than 19 years after

reformation era, face a serious stage. Where we

know that freedom of speech is facing hate speech

definition. The using of social media stream that

already mentioned in big number users, clearly not

showing a good effect. Hate speech now related to

act that potentially bring destruction into society.

Not only that, society now facing the limit that made

by authorities regarding freedom of speech. For

example, is the capture of Saracen or even how

Jakarta governor accused by blasphemy triggered

based on somebody Facebook status update.

This writing already analysis the securitization

process that occurred on the fact that hate speech

now become issue that politized by authorities below

the misperception of freedom of speech. The

securitization itself can be seen in different issues

that happen in Indonesia for example at the illegal

fishing issue or combat terrorism issue. Both cases

end up with several regulation or agency that

specialized to overcome the issue that turning into

serious threat. Now that nation resilience and

sovereignty to be in the stake, Indonesia once again

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face a serious stage of threat treatment which is hate

speech.

Securitization come from non-security issue that

politized and raised the urgency by authorities or

significant actors and see it as a threat. Not only that,

hate speech now facing new phase when we see how

government react into it. As a process of

securitization running into more serious stage, hate

speech perpetrator now must face several charged

made by Indonesian National Police through

different laws such as KUHP, UUD 1945, and Law

of Information and Electronic Transaction. Since

hate speech have no special law or agency that made

by government to officially overcome it, now it

seems like the law would be made soon with every

serious damage that hate speech create. Thus, in

securitization stage, hate speech become closer into

success than failed. Even the outcome of

securitization which is ratified law is have not been

made for hate speech but how Indonesian

government face the hate speech issue is in serious

term. In the conclusion, hate speech now is almost

securitized if we see how now Indonesian authorities

is take a role in overcome hate speech issue.

One thing we should keep in mind that

securitization has a possibility to degrade the

democracy process in Indonesia. By making one

issue to be securitized, that issue is no longer non-

political and no longer become small issue to talk

about. Once issue which is not security issue

determine to get securitized its means using all

means that government has become the option. So,

we might rethink about this possibility before

making an issue securitized. Nevertheless, the hate

speech concern into securitization by using the

internet and spread it to the public need to be aware

of. As if we see how the public opinion is easily

shaped and the government rules about hate speech

has reach the final say. And now Indonesia will face

the election year in 2018-2019, for sure the

challenge that government has is more than eradicate

the hate speech but also who behind it to prevent

further catastrophe.

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APPENDIX

Picture sources:

1. https://joannamartin.com/success-lies-outside-your-

comfort-zone/

2. https://www.dreamstime.com/stock-illustration-

crowded-audience-crowd-cartoon-people-

image41195796

3. https://www.123rf.com/photo_20360320_orator-

master-of-speech-in-action.html

4. https://www.istockphoto.com/il/vector/threat-hate-

letter-with-skull-cartoon-illustration-gm138289502-

7969029

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