Knowledge Management Strategy in the Non-profit Sector: A Case

Study at a UK Heritage Site

Roger Fullwood

and Jennifer Rowley

Business and Management Department, Manchester Metropolitan University, U.K.

Languages, Information and Communications Department, Manchester Metropolitan University, U.K.

Keywords: Knowledge Management, Knowledge Sharing, Non-profit Sector, Volunteers.

Abstract: The purpose of this article is to explore knowledge management strategy in a large heritage site that is heavily

dependent on volunteers. A single site case study approach was utilised and rich qualitative data was generated

by interviews with departmental managers. The results of the research suggested that a strong culture of

knowledge sharing existed at the site and that it was broadly supportive of the knowledge management

strategy. Tacit knowledge was shared extensively within and across volunteer groups and there was evidence

of the operation of communities of practice. The outcome of these processes was substantial individual and

organisational learning. However, knowledge sharing by managers with volunteers was more prescriptive in

some outdoor roles. Managers were also mindful of the need for consistency and accuracy in the knowledge

shared with volunteers in order to ensure the provision of a uniform service to the public that was consistent

with organisational values. An initiative to promote a volunteer intranet was however less successful.

1 INTRODUCTION

In the 1990’s commercial and public organisations

began to understand that knowledge was their key

asset (Drucker, 1989) and that sustainable

competitive advantage and innovation can result from

managing their knowledge effectively (Davenport

and Prusak, 1998; Nonaka, 1994). This led to greater

focus on how organisations learn and on the role of

socio- technical systems and information technology

(Hislop, 2018). Knowledge sharing was also

considered essential to the process of knowledge

management because for knowledge management to

be successful, organisational members must be

prepared to share their knowledge with others

(Cabrera and Cabrera, 2005).

However, in spite of growing recognition of the

value of knowledge management in public sector

organisations (Pee and Kankanhalli, 2016; Sandhu et

al., 2011) there is scant evidence of its application in

the voluntary and not-for-profit (NPO) sector (Hume

and Hume, 2008). This may be considered surprising

given the already substantial value of volunteer

output to the UK economy. This stood at £23.9 billion

in 2012, which amounted to 1.5% of GDP (Foster,

2013). In fact, volunteering has been viewed in recent

years in the UK as a method of implementing

government policy, and substantial amounts have

been apportioned to volunteer infrastructure

(Rochester et al., 2016).

The significance of the volunteer workforce is

underlined by the fact that 41% of people in the UK

took part in formal volunteering at least once a month

in 2015-2016 and 60% volunteered informally during

the same period (Community Life Survey, 2016).

Volunteers are also utilised extensively across the

Sport, Health, Education Religious, Cultural and

Heritage sectors (NCVO, 2017). Moreover, NPO

organisations provide paid as well as voluntary

positions (Lyons and Passey, 2006).

The particular importance of volunteers in the

heritage sector is emphasised by the case of the

National Trust where there are 62,000 volunteers

compared to 10,000 paid employees (National Trust

Annual Report, 2015-2016). This was a rise of 3% on

the previous year and translated into 4.5 million hours

donated by volunteers to the Trust. Overall this

represents a substantial rise in volunteer numbers

when compared to a figure of 34,380 in 2002/2003.

A more recent trend of volunteers managing other

volunteers (VMV) has been highlighted by Hill and

Stevens (2011). Indeed, an Institute for Volunteering

Research survey in 2008 found that a quarter of staff

in volunteer management positions were unpaid

(Machin and Ellis Page, 2008). However, Hill and

Stevens (2011) feel that volunteers who manage other

volunteers (VMV) have been excluded from the more

Fullwood, R. and Rowley, J.

Knowledge Management Strategy in the Non-proﬁt Sector: A Case Study at a UK Heritage Site.

DOI: 10.5220/0006920901690176

In Proceedings of the 10th International Joint Conference on Knowledge Discovery, Knowledge Engineering and Knowledge Management (IC3K 2018) - Volume 3: KMIS, pages 169-176

ISBN: 978-989-758-330-8

169

professional training afforded to paid managers of

volunteers in recent years.

This paper seeks to contribute to the sparse

research on knowledge management in the voluntary

sector through analysis of a case study of knowledge

management processes at a large UK heritage site that

is heavily reliant on volunteers.

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Knowledge Management in the

For-profit Sector

A wide range of factors that affect the success of

knowledge management strategy have been

mentioned in the literature. Such a strategy is often

linked to the resource-based view of business strategy

where knowledge is a critical resource to be exploited

to gain competitive advantage (Barney, 2001). The

importance of information technology as an enabler

for knowledge management was widely stressed at an

early stage (Earl, 2001). Later the consideration of

socio technical systems became much more important

(McAdam and McCreedy, 1999) as it was realised

that information technology by itself could not

persuade employees to share their knowledge. Thus,

organisational culture and its components became

recognised as critical enablers of knowledge

management (Hislop, 2018) with effective

knowledge management leading to organisational

learning (McAdam and McCreedy, 1999). Human

Resource Management practices also increased in

significance due to their role in developing human

capital (Gloet, 2006) and promoting organisational

learning (Theriou and Chatzoglou, 2008).

Furthermore, according to Hislop (2018), HRM

facilitates knowledge management by shaping

employees’ behaviour through practices such as

selection, recruitment and reward.

Typologies of knowledge are also central to

knowledge management strategy (Alavi and Leidner,

2001). Polyani (1962) suggested that there are two

types of knowledge. Explicit knowledge can be

codified into databases for example, whereas tacit

knowledge is that which is stored within a person’s

head. Conversion processes involving both explicit

and tacit knowledge form the basis of Nonaka’s

(1994) well-cited SECI model (e.g. Hislop, 2002;

Hoe, 2006).

Hansen et al. (1999) suggested two distinct

strategies for knowledge management. First of all, the

codification approach consisted of documentation of

knowledge, typically explicit, developed from

previous experience on repositories. The second

approach known as personalisation places much

greater emphasis on face-to-face contacts and the

transfer of tacit knowledge in an individualised

situation (Hansen et al., 1999).

2.2 Knowledge Management in the

Non-profit Sector

There are however, many differences between the

for-profit and non-profit sectors. Hume and Hume

(2008) suggest that NPO’s are characterised by

shortage of resource and attributes this to the

perceived lack of interest in knowledge management

within the sector. Rathi et al. (2016) point out that

NPO’s focus on social value rather than profit but

nevertheless highlight the need for them to effectively

manage their resources in order to fulfil their purpose

by providing services and that knowledge

management can be crucial in this respect.

Lettieri et al. (2004) emphasises that NPO’s are

knowledge intensive organisations, however suggests

that knowledge in the non-profit sector is

“…heterogeneous, widespread, rarely formalised and

unstable”. However, Lettieri et al. (2004) also points

out a number of ways that knowledge management

can help the non-profit sector: Firstly, it can help

provide usable knowledge to increase awareness of

the organisational objectives and enhance the ability

to create social value. Moreover, operational

efficiency can be improved and an increased

awareness of skills and knowledge required can help

to determine realistic development plans (Lettieri et

al., 2004). Although Choi (2014) believes that non-

profit organisations need a greater focus on

organisational learning and the learning organisation.

Research by Prugsamatz (2010) suggested that one

reason for this could be the focus of many Non-profit

organisations on solving external problems rather

than targeting possible internal improvements. This

could be due to a perceived need to prioritise the

fulfilment of organisational purpose (Prugsamatz,

2010).

Empirical research unto knowledge management and

indeed knowledge sharing amongst volunteers

focuses on festival organisations where volunteering

is predominantly episodic (e.g. Abfalter, Stadler and

Müller, 2012; Clayton, 2016; Ragsdell and Jepson,

2014). Thus, volunteers return each year often to the

same event with enhanced knowledge (Bryen and

Madden, 2006). Ragsdell and Jepson (2014) studied

knowledge management and sharing at three

volunteer managed festivals and found that the values

KMIS 2018 - 10th International Conference on Knowledge Management and Information Sharing

170

of volunteers were conducive to sharing knowledge

and a master-apprentice model was significant in

sharing primarily tacit knowledge. Accordingly, a

personalisation strategy (Hansen et al., 1999) was

found to be in operation. However, lack of a business

infrastructure along with job descriptions, incentive

schemes and visions that align with project goals

could hinder the establishment of a knowledge

sharing strategy (Ragsdell et al., 2014).

Indeed, Human Resource Management such as

recruitment practices are significant in supporting a

knowledge management strategy in the commercial

and public sector (Scarbrough, 2003; Gloet, 2006).

However, there is scant literature on Human Resource

Management itself as applied to volunteers (Cuskelly

et al., 2006). Moreover, Boezeman and Ellemers

(2008) point out that recruitment and reward

processes used for paid employees lack relevance to

volunteers given their different status and

motivations.

Abfalter, Stadler and Müller (2012) found that a

core group of permanent employees possessed the

critical knowledge at the Colorado Music Festival and

knowledge sharing was largely on an informal basis

and there was evidence of communities of practice

(Wenger, 2004). The importance of such communities

in creating a knowledge sharing environment is

stressed by Lesser and Everest (2001). The website

was valued by volunteers as an information source for

codified information although more information was

requested. Clayton’s (2016) research emphasised the

importance of the quality of volunteer experience in

encouraging both repeat volunteering and an enabling

environment for knowledge sharing.

3 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Context

This paper is based on a major heritage site featuring

a stately mansion. The site is near to a major

conurbation in the north west of England. Volunteers

come mainly from the immediate community but

sometimes from further afield. Volunteers contribute

widely in roles such as room guides, greeters,

gardeners and estate rangers. They are managed by a

full-time team of paid departmental managers and

there is also a specialist Volunteer Development

Manager. In addition to the volunteer managers, the

larger teams also have day organisers, who

themselves are volunteers and are responsible for

organising the team rotas. Both managers and

volunteers gain from training and development

interventions. Managers are aware that there are a

number of different motivations for volunteering and

these impact on the experience the volunteers expect

to receive, the type of jobs they wish to try and the

amount of development they want or need.

The arrangement of the interviews and invitations

to the participants were organised and implemented

by the Volunteer Development Manager for the

property. Interviews with managers focussed on

knowledge management and knowledge sharing as

well on as learning, and development of volunteers.

There are three distinct groupings of volunteers at

the site. A long-standing group of volunteers, many

of whom are retired, have a deep interest in the history

of the site, whereas a more recent group has a younger

profile and its members are more interested in the

social aspect of volunteering. A third grouping are

looking for career skills and sometimes more formal

qualifications. A number of volunteer engagement

initiatives have taken place at the site over the last few

years. These have been centred upon narratives that

focus on the history of the site. Their purpose has

been to develop volunteer skills and also to stimulate

interest.

3.2 Research Design

Due to the exploratory nature of the research and the

accessibility of participants a qualitative approach has

been taken (Cresswell, 2013). Although a single case

study approach is context specific (Flyvbjerg, 2006)

and not generalisable, a greater depth and insight can

be generated (Farquhar, 2012). Managers from all

departments that utilised volunteers were invited to

take part in individual in-depth interviews.

Furthermore, this setting gave volunteers from

different areas the opportunity to identify common

concerns. Details of interviews with managers are

shown below in Table 1.

Table 1: Demographics of interviewees.

Interview

Number

Role Gender

INT 1 Volunteer Development Manager F

INT 2 Head Gardener F

INT 3 Visitor Experience Manager F

INT 4 Learning Assistant F

INT 5 Ranger M

INT 6 Ranger M

INT 7 Assistant Head Gardener F

INT 8 Assistant Retail Manager F

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171

4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Managers largely agreed that there was a knowledge

sharing culture at the property and this reflects the

findings of Ragsdell and Jepson (2014) who

suggested that the values of volunteers supported

such a culture.

I think it's very focused around knowledge sharing,

people sharing what they know is ultimately the way

that the place operates (INT 1).

However, despite the desire for sharing, there was

a perceived necessity for a more strategic approach to

facilitate and shape the management and sharing of

knowledge that could also lead to learning outcomes.

Printed bulletins also tended to be read more by

volunteers, many of whom preferred written material

to online content.

We've set up a bulletin, a fortnightly newsletter that

goes out to all our volunteers, mainly because I

realized how little people were talking to each other

and sharing information…. there is so much to share

and people are so keen to learn and share, that it

makes sense to have a structure there that enables it

to happen (INT 1).

Also, from a management point of view the

critical imperative was that volunteers communicated

information with the public that the organisation

wanted them to share.

If decisions get made by the staff, and people aren't

told and educated and told of how we want the

organisation to come across to people… and the

volunteers aren't told that, then essentially, they could

represent us in the wrong way, maybe? (INT 5).

Consistency of knowledge shared was also

considered to be important to ensure uniformity of

processes and purpose.

I do see it as central in that we need to share that

knowledge- if we all have the same knowledge then

we’ll all work better because everyone knows the

same things and it means we can continue to pass that

knowledge on to people who join us later on (INT 8).

The Volunteer Development Manager is also clear

about the need for a strategic approach to both explicit

and tacit knowledge sharing as well as an awareness

of the diversity of knowledge and skills gained in

other contexts that volunteers bring with them.

I also oversee the overall way in which people share

information whether that's on a very informal basis

or through our formal learning programs

So, you know, maybe they've had careers, and they've

got experience and skills that are really valuable to

the organisation but they don't necessarily think to

contribute that (INT 1).

Knowledge is often shared by managers with

volunteers on a face-to-face basis as part of an

everyday task thus involving an exchange of tacit

knowledge in an individualised situation. This is very

much a personalisation strategy (Hansen et al., 1999),

but one that is also aimed at ensuring consistency of

information. In this way rituals, routines and values

can be emphasised thus reinforcing the desired

organisational culture (Johnson et al., 2014).

However, there are some differences in the way

knowledge is shared within different teams. In the

gardening team knowledge is sometimes shared in a

more prescriptive way and sharing of tacit knowledge

is not encouraged.

I don’t know how much they might learn from each

other, but maybe more support each other. I think

because generally we explain the job and how it has

to be done, so I don’t think that there is necessarily

an opportunity for somebody else to come in and say

“we should do it like this” because we’ve explained

how the job needs to be done (INT 7).

However much tacit knowledge is also exchanged

in the breaks which are shared between permanent

staff and volunteers. Indeed, overall tacit knowledge

exchange resulted in significant informal learning for

volunteers (Mundel and Schugurensky, 2008).

Although, volunteers in this area have been

upskilled in recent years, the inherent health and

safety aspect of operating machinery to some extent

dictates a more prescriptive approach. Consequently,

explicit knowledge is often communicated in

mandatory training sessions concerning Health and

Safety.

I would say that things like the machinery work,

where you're going to need a certain level of

knowledge of health and safety…. as opposed to

probably two or three years ago when we were

generally only using our volunteers for weeding,

collecting leaves (INT 2).

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Volunteers generally have more autonomy in

indoor roles such as room guides although permanent

staff designated Duty Managers have been introduced

to check in on volunteer activities. Knowledge

sharing is also generally less top down and involves a

great deal of lateral sharing amongst volunteers in

indoor roles which facilitate situated tacit learning.

They do a stint on their own and then they sit in a

room and have tea and biscuits and they talk about

things they've learnt, and they love that passing on of

information between each other (INT 3).

One example of this has been a group of

volunteers with deep interests in the history of the

property who have formed a research group, which

has characteristics of a community of practice

(Wenger, 2004). However, management has been

responsible for converting the knowledge produced

into explicit knowledge in handbook form to be

circulated more widely as in Nonaka’s (1994)

knowledge conversion model.

So, we've done lots of work around creating

handbooks that people can read, drop in session

where people can find out about our new project, we

have pre-season meetings every year that we feed into

(INT 3).

Information technology, which resulted in the

codification of tacit knowledge, was the enabler for

the earliest type of knowledge management strategy

(Earl, 2001). However, because of the older age

profile, introducing a comprehensive intranet for

volunteers has proved difficult and many prefer more

traditional forms of communication.

The database, and the way of recording your personal

information and your hours and things, that has

pushed a lot of them, some of them aren’t interested

in engaging with that (INT 4).

However, managers are generally very mindful of

the motivations of volunteers as well as long-term or

short-term orientation when considering their

contribution and readiness for development.

We have people that have been in the group for thirty

years and have written the programme and really

their motivation for coming is to deliver that….and

obviously the social aspect. But, we have younger

people who come into that group and don't stay as

long but their motivation is really gaining some

understanding about that part of heritage and going

away with new skills (INT 3).

Transfer of both tacit and explicit knowledge is

facilitated further by many volunteers performing

more than one role thus gaining an insight into the

overall operation of the site. Engagement initiatives

that explore historical themes of the site and taster

sessions are also extremely popular and frequently

oversubscribed. This particularly benefits customer-

facing volunteers who are able to share knowledge

gained in different departments in roles such as

guides or greeters. Thus, organisational learning is

achieved through the contribution of individuals

(Wang and Ahmed, 2003).

So yeah, if I think about it, quite a few of them have

dual site roles across the property. Some of them are

room guides, so in the winter when the house is closed

they focus more on their retail (INT 8).

Much consideration is also given to how much

knowledge it is wise to share with volunteers due to

operational considerations and the need to move a

process forward. Thus, a less consultative leadership

style results in less knowledge sharing (Politis, 2001).

All of our volunteers are very passionate about what

they do and they have opinions about things and

that’s great but sometimes you just need to get a job

done as well. So that's when you have to kind of weigh

up how much knowledge you're going to share with

people (INT 3).

As previously discussed, there is scant literature

on HR processes such as recruitment and selection

procedures being utilised in the non-profit sector case

studies (Cuskelly, 2006; Ragsdell et al., 2014).

However, in the case study organisation, recruitment

systems are similar to For-profit organisations. All

vacancies for volunteers are advertised and

comprehensive job descriptions are provided.

Furthermore, the strategic importance of the Day

Organiser position as a knowledge conduit between

permanent staff and volunteers is fully recognised.

It’s quite a responsible position…a day organizer will

100% influence their team. So, if we don’t feel like it’s

the right person, then they could be giving completely

the wrong message to the team (INT 5).

Consequently, an internal recruitment process is

now undertaken and consideration is being given to

extending the recruitment pool outside the

Knowledge Management Strategy in the Non-proﬁt Sector: A Case Study at a UK Heritage Site

173

organisation. Moreover, in one department a

permanent member of staff has taken on the role

because of the need for an overview of priorities.

Managers also focus on ensuring that the

knowledge that volunteers receive initially is correct

and interpreted correctly. Volunteers usually mentor

other volunteers and there is always a possibility that

bad habits are spread in this way (Broadbridge, 1999).

They’re not doing it deliberately different to how you

want it, it’s just they’re first given information, but

it’s like they perceive it in a different way, and it’s

trying to understand and bring them back round to

reasons why it was done like that in the first place

(INT 4).

5 CONCLUSIONS

It is clear that knowledge sharing culture exists at the

site. Also, there was certainly little evidence of the

instability of knowledge resources suggested by

Lettieri (2004) as a characteristic of the non-profit

sector.

Previous research confirms that tacit knowledge

sharing in a situated learning process is pre-eminent

amongst volunteers (Abfalter, Stadler and Müller,

2012; Ragsdell et al., 2014). However, a much more

structured approach has been taken at the case study

organisation. This is illustrated by the regular

bulletins that were introduced to share explicit

knowledge, the construction of handbooks and the

availability of formal training. On the other hand, the

need to tailor the communication to the audience has

been demonstrated by the comparative lack of success

of the intranet initiative. However, it should be

pointed out that previous research has focussed on

organisations that utilise volunteers on an episodic

basis.

Managers possess the core operational knowledge

of the operation (Abfalter, Stadler and Müller, 2012)

consequently, they can be careful about which

information to share. Furthermore, in keeping with a

strategic approach, there is more management of the

knowledge to ensure accuracy and consistency. This

is also to make sure volunteers share the perspective

of the organisation with the public. The Day

Organiser role was recognised as a crucial strategic

conduit for knowledge between managers and

volunteers. Consequently, the utilisation of a formal

recruitment process was therefore very appropriate.

Thus, a human resource management process more

associated with paid employees is utilised, and this

acts as a foundation for the development of a

knowledge culture.

There have also been suggestions that

organisations in the non-profit sector lack a focus on

organisational learning (Choi, 2014; Prugsamatz,

2010). However, in this case study, the focus on

sharing tacit knowledge and capturing this for

circulation to others and re-use for the public suggests

that this is not the case. Although, Lettieri’s (2004)

suggestion that knowledge management can create

social value is evidenced in the production of

knowledge to enhance the visitor experience and in

the communal knowledge creating experience

enjoyed by the volunteers.

The recent, more strategic, approach to managing

and sharing knowledge has enabled the volunteers to

realise their desire to share their knowledge and

cultivated their appetite to learn as well as enabling

the values of the organisation to be communicated to

the public through the volunteers.

Clearly the research is limited in generalisability

by the single case study approach. Furthermore,

findings in the heritage sector may not be applicable

to other volunteer sectors.

Future research could examine knowledge

management in heritage and other organisations

utilising volunteers Factors affecting volunteers

propensity to share knowledge could also be

investigated.

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