Crowdsourcing System and Changes in Media Technology in

Reshaping Distribution of Graphic Design Works

P. Gogor Bangsa

Indonesia Institute of the Arts Yogyakarta, Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Keywords: Crowdsourcing, Internet, Media Technology, Reshaping, Graphic Design

Abstract: The development of the graphic design was strongly influenced by technological developments. From

graphic design style, how to work to the way it is distributed. When digital technology and the Internet

became known, changes also occurred in the field of graphic design. The presence of the Internet also

encourages the emergence of a crowdsourcing system as a way to bring together clients and graphic

designers. Designers also take advantage of these advancements to facilitate the way they work, but as a

technology that always brings two sides as a result, the crowdsourcing system also has the same thing.

1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF

GRAPHIC DESIGN

Graphic design is a general term for activities

that combine typography, illustration, photography

and printing for the purposes of persuasion,

information and instruction (Livingston &

Livingston, 1994). This definition shows that the

graphic design field is very close to technology and

its development is strongly influenced by

technology. Graphic design is also often seen as a

means of communication, including its relationship

with the development of industries that play an

important role in marketing factory production

(Meggs & Purvis, 2012), thus also close to economic

issues.

The development of graphic design can be traced

thousands of years ago since the days of the

illuminated ancient Roman script until the

development of printing machines in Europe by

Gutenberg in the 1450s and so on. But important

developments emerged during the Industrial

Revolution in England between 1760-1840, which

was a radical change in the economic and social

fields, including in graphic design. The Industrial

Revolution created a breakdown and separation of

the fields of creation and production of graphic

design expertise into a number of field specialties

(Meggs & Purvis, 2012).

Along with the development of technology in

graphic design especially when phototypesetting

began to be commonly used in the 1960s, several

special skills emerged, such as: graphic designers

(who made page layouts); typesetter (which operates

equipment for typesetting); production artist / paste-

up artist (tasked with arranging all graphic design

elements into a page); camera operator (who made a

negative photo from a paste-up result); stripper (in

charge of compiling these negative photos into one);

plate maker (in charge of preparing the printing

plate); and print operators (who operate printing

machines).

But for the last quarter century in the 20

century

and the first decade of the 21

century, computer

technology (and electronics) experienced a very

rapid progress. This progress affects many aspects of

human life, including in the field of graphic design.

Then in the period leading up to the 1990s, almost

all of these tasks could be taken over by just one

person with the help of computer graphics.

This development also occurred in Indonesia,

before the entry of digital technology in the 1990s

all design work was done with hand skills. From

making illustrations, combining photos, lettering,

layout to production preparation are all done

manually. This requires special expertise and high

skills from the perpetrators, for it requires formal

education or experience to be able to get all these

skills. Formally at that time education for the

graphic design field already existed in Indonesia,

such as at the Indonesian Institute of Arts in

Yogyakarta or the Bandung Institute of Technology

(Kardinata, 2015). Likewise for graphic design skills

Bangsa, P.

Crowdsourcing System and Changes in Media Technology in Reshaping Distribution of Graphic Design Works.

DOI: 10.5220/0008765904150422

In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Interdisciplinary Arts and Humanities (ICONARTIES 2019), pages 415-422

ISBN: 978-989-758-450-3

415

in Indonesia which have had a long history of

creating people who are experts in the field self-

taught (Setiyono, 2004).

2 CROWDSOURCING SYSTEM

PRESENCE IN GRAPHIC

DESIGN

Graphic design experienced rapid development

when computer graphics became known in

Indonesia in the second half of the 1980s. The

presence of desktop publishing and graphics

software makes it easy for a new generation of

Indonesian graphic designers. By the year 2000,

more and more graphic design work had become

increasingly dependent on computers. The influence

of computer graphics technology has many

influences in terms of design techniques and styles,

accuracy and speed. The development of computer

technology was followed by the development of

information technology by the presence of the

Internet. The rapid development of the Internet then

opened up opportunities for graphic designers to find

media to display and disseminate their works.

Beginning with making e-magazine as a media

display of works that are disseminated through a

website (Bangsa, 2008). After that, other media

began to emerge that had the opportunity to

disseminate and become a place to sell their work

such as crowdsourcing sites and portfolio / showcase

sites (e.g. 99 designs, Design Contest, Upwork,

Envato Studio, Sribu, Freepik, Devianart, and so

on).

Crowdsourcing is the process of getting services,

ideas, or content by collecting contributions from a

group of people, especially from online communities

for a variety of activities. This term is a combination

of "crowd" and "outsourcing" (getting something

from outside / external) (Ghazali and Nadinastiti,

2015). The way the system works is quite simple:

the site organizer invites designers to submit their

designs for creating design contests for various

graphic design needs such as websites, t-shirts, logos

and so on. Then the client will choose the best

design from the design that comes in and the

winning designer will get a payment. The term

crowdsourcing is often misunderstood by

crowdfunding with different objectives, but the

resources still come from the crowd.

The term crowdsourcing was introduced by Jeff

Howe in 2006 in an article in Wired online magazine

(www.wired.com/2006/06/crowds/). However,

crowdsourcing activities were recorded as having

existed since 1714 when the British government

opened a twenty thousand pound prize competition

for those who could find the longitude counting

method of a ship (Dawson & Bynghall, 2012).

Crowdsourcing is then more developed and known

along with the presence of Internet technology.

Howe (2009) calls the crowdsourcing system the

beginning of human networking, and as predicted by

Alvin Toffler in The Third Wave that society does

not just want to consume passively, but they want to

participate in the development and creation of

products that are more meaningful to them.

Crowdsourcing represents the actions of a

company or an institution taking a function that was

originally carried out by permanent workers and

freelancers to an undefined group of community

networks and usually in large numbers in the form of

an open call. Howe (2009) (Fuchs, 2014) says that

crowdsourcing is one embodiment towards the

democratization of capitalism.

Howe gave the initial example of crowdsourcing

in the case of Threadless.com which was founded by

Jack Nickell and Jacob DeHart in Chicago in 2000

who made an online t-shirt design competition.

Every week they receive about a thousand design

entries and winners are chosen by the designers

themselves rather than by the board of jury. The

winner will get a t-shirt with his own design.

Threadless.com benefits greatly from this business

with the cost of producing each t-shirt for US $ 5

and they sell between US $ 12 – 25. They also do

not need to pay for designers, salespeople and

advertisements because the community they own has

done it all for free (Howe, 2009).

Fuchs said that the company's management

thinkers had recommended to companies to transfer

employee resources to users and consumers with the

aim of increasing company profits by reducing labor

costs. The outsourcing of work to consumers is a

general tendency of contemporary capitalism. In

addition to the form of open call, crowdsourcing is

done by means of competitions, contests, image

stock, or showcases. Facebook has asked users to

translate their sites into other languages without

payment, as is done by Google for Google Translate

and Google Maps, and Trip Advisor. Pepsi held a

competition with a prize of US $ 10,000 for the best

design from the Pepsi can. In such projects, most of

the work carried out is not paid. Even if the winner

receives money as prize, most of the work time used

by users and consumers is completely unpaid, which

allows the company to outsource paid work time to

consumers or fans who work for free (Fuchs, 2014).

ICONARTIES 2019 - 1st International Conference on Interdisciplinary Arts and Humanities

416

Crowdsourcing phenomena also occur in

Indonesia, especially after Internet technology

available and its access became easier. In Salaman

village (near Borobudur Temple, in Magelang

Regency, Province of Central Java) there is a group

of self-taught graphic designers (there are

approximately 1,500 people). They switched their

livelihoods from the former laborers (laborers,

farmers, public transportation drivers, and so on) to

become graphic designers since getting to know

computer graphics and Internet technology. By

following the logo design contest on the

crowdsourcing site 99design.com by working like an

intermediary between prospective clients and

designers, where in 2014 they earned approximately

45 billion Rupiah (around US $ 3,700,000) in

revenue. However, the process undertaken is not

easy, because they have to submit designs of tens to

hundreds of times per person (Arifin, interview, 28-

29 November 2014). Until now they are still

undergoing this activity as their main work because

they provide earn more money than their previous

work (Bangsa, 2017).

The Aqua mineral water company uses

illustrations by Renata Owen – a 7th semester

student at the time in 2014 – for the "40 Years of

Aqua" series. Renata was 'discovered' by the Aqua

agency through the Behance design showcase site.

The illustration is valued at 50 million Rupiah

(approximately US $ 4,500), a lower price than if

Aqua uses a professional agency, but the price is

very high for a student. In 2014 Bayu Santosa (then

semester student) won an alternative Maroon 5

album cover contest and earned US $ 700 (around 7

to 8 million Rupiah when he won the contest) and

tickets to watching the Maroon 5 concert in America

but failed because the cost of transport and

accommodation must be borne by himself (Santosa,

interview, 11 April 2019).

Vinsensiana Aprilia Nanda Jeharu, an alumni of

design department who became a freelance

illustrator who joined the crowdsourcing site

Upwork (www.upwork.com) got a job making

digital illustrations for children's story books from a

foreign client. One page of the illustration was

valued at US $ 5 and she had to make 15 pages (US

$ 75), and by her client the book was sold on the

Amazon.com site as a US $ 15 e-book Kindle digital

book. As a freelance illustrator at Upwork.com, she

must comply with the rules of the site, such as:

unlimited design revisions. While the client has the

right such as: disconnecting the employment

relationship unilaterally without notification with the

illustrator if it is considered unsatisfactory, and

giving a rating according to the service to the client.

The existence of such regulations makes

Vinsensiana must be careful in providing services to

clients so that her membership account is not

suspended by Upwork as she experienced when she

joined the crowdsourcing site Fiverr. But

Vinsensiana admitted that she was quite satisfied

with the income earned and the way she worked so

far (Jeharu, interview, 20 May 2019).

Even so, not all designers that the crowdsourcing

system is a profitable way, because designers have

invested their time, energy and mind but there is no

guarantee that their work will be paid because they

have to compete with thousands of other designers.

In addition, crowdsourcing sites have never provided

regulations that provide protection for designers, so

that they potentially threaten the designer profession,

there is also no guarantee of designs that are not

chosen to be misused (Ghazali and Nadinastiti,

2015).

The crowdsourcing system has the same nature

as the Internet, namely anonymity. "On the Internet,

nobody knows you're a dog", according to the

cartoon caption published in The New Yorker to

point to Internet anonymity, as well as

crowdsourcing as anonymous so that it never takes

into account one's educational background, or

experience (Howe, 2009). Therefore the existence of

the crowdsourcing system also makes the boundaries

between professionals and amateurs blurred. In his

article, Howe (2006) exemplified the emergence of

crowdsourcing with a professional photographer in

California, who was frustrated because even though

he had lowered the cost of his photography services,

it still had to lose to iStockphoto which provides

millions of photos at very cheap prices. The

iStockphoto site is a royalty-free photo stock (as

well as illustration, clip art, video and audio)

provider with prices varying between US $ 0.22 to

US $ 10 per photo with a collection of photos

totaling millions of contributions from

photographers all over the world. While the price of

one photo from a professional photographer is US $

200 to US $ 300 per photo. Anyone can send photos

to this site regardless of their educational

background, experience or professionalism. The

same is true of the example of self-taught designers

and academic designers who have no boundaries

between professional, academic or self-taught.

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417

3 TECHNOCULTURE IN

GRAPHIC DESIGN

This study aims to examine the role of the

Internet as part of cyberculture and its influence on

the workings and ways of distributing graphic design

works, especially with crowdsourcing systems, and

how crowdsourcing systems are carried out by

designers and the use of Internet technology. This

circumstances like in accordance with technoculture

theory which is referred to as an interrelation and

dependence between technology and culture. The

Internet – in this case – is considered as a new

communication media, which can be seen as a cause

of changes in the way of production and distribution

of graphic design works. But it can also be seen on

the contrary whether as a result of the development

of the way of working and its distribution. Internet

technology that is increasingly available easily and

cheaply brings many conveniences in the field of

graphic design such as: efficiency, speed, accuracy

and flexibility. Therefore this study will also

examine how the Internet plays a role in the facilities

mentioned above.

This research is directed at the micro level and as

a corpus of this research are local designers in

Yogyakarta and around, who undergo the

crowdsourcing system in their work in the field of

graphic design between 2010 - 2018. As a

comparison, research will be conducted on the

response of professional, academic and self-taught

designers to the crowdsourcing system. Therefore,

this research will be expected to have different

aspects compared to the cases of the crowdsourcing

system at the macro level.

When Internet technology became popular,

public of graphic design made use of its efficiency,

speed, accuracy, and flexibility to try to escape

dependence on patrons. This can be seen in the

efforts of local graphic designers to showcase their

work through e-magazine distributed through the

Internet. There has been previous research regarding

the relationship between the way Internet production

and the way of distributing graphic design works,

namely research that had been done by the author

titled “E-Magazine as an Alternative Media for

Spreading the Concept of Visual Communication

Design” in 2008. This study explains the emergence

of Internet technology that encourages young

graphic designers in Yogyakarta to make their own

access to distribute their work by loading it in an e-

magazine uploaded on an Internet site (Bangsa,

2008). However, the problem of this research is that

there are differences with the subject matter raised

by the author now. Although both discussed

technoculture but here there are differences in the

subject matter, namely: trying to release from

patronage relations (2008), while in the proposed

research this is more a shift from patronage relations

to partnership relations. The research time is also

different if it is related to the context of Internet

technology development, namely when

crowdsourcing sites have not spread yet (2008), and

further highlights how designers display their work

and later this model is similar to what is now known

as a portfolio site or showcase.

The next paper was titled “Between Craftsmen

and Designers” (2017) which was also written by the

author. The object of this research is self-taught

graphic designers in Salaman village, Magelang

Regency who joined the 99design.com

crowdsourcing site. Although it alludes to the

relationship between the Internet and the

crowdsourcing system, this research is different

from the one proposed by the author now. The study

focuses more on explaining the work methods of

self-taught designers compared to professional

designers and academic designers (Bangsa, 2017). In

general, both studies revolve around the problem of

the distribution of access to the Internet itself or the

political economy problems of the distribution of

Internet access.

To begin this research an explanation will be

given regarding the field of graphic design and

especially its relation to technological developments.

Graphic design also evolves in accordance with the

development of technology according to the division

of human history into three periods according to

Alvin Toffler (1980): agrarian revolution (first

wave), industrial revolution (second wave), and

information revolution (third wave). Technological

developments in graphic design were presented in

the world graphic design history book by Philip B.

Meggs and Alston W. Purvis “Meggs' History of

Graphic Design” especially in the discussion of the

Industrial Revolution and the impact of industrial

technology on visual communication. Whereas in

the next section the book discusses the Age of

Information and graphic design in a global village,

and at the end is about the Digital Revolution.

The Digital Revolution cannot be separated from

the role of computers and the Internet as part of

cyberculture. One result that arises from the

existence of Internet technology is the

crowdsourcing work system. There was a study

about crowdsourcing conducted in 2016 about the

crowdsourcing system carried out by Panca Siwi N.

in title “Community Participation in Jogja

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418

Rebranding (Case Study: Community Political

Participation in Jogja Rebranding through the Jogja

Urun Rembug Forum)”. The study discusses the role

of the Yogyakarta community in responding to and

determining the new logo for the rebranding of the

city of Yogyakarta. The findings of this study are

that the crowdsourcing system in the case of

rebranding the city of Yogyakarta is more of a

community-based mutual cooperation activity for

the image of the city without hoping to get

rewarded. Whereas the present research is more on

how designers work with a crowdsourcing system

with the aim of getting at least cash in return.

The crowdsourcing system itself is considered to

be imperfect, and even some people prejudice the

system. The Indonesian government during the time

of President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono through

the Ministry of Tourism and Creative Economy

mentioned the shortcomings of this graphic design

crowdsourcing system, although very little in the

2015 - 2019 National Design Development Plan. It

is said that the crowdsourcing system is a new form

of business model where clients can asking from

many designers to fulfill their request.

The existence of a crowdsourcing system cannot

be separated from the role of the development of

Internet technology. The presence of Internet

technology then made crowdsourcing more known

and developed. Regarding the network explained by

Martin Lister (Lister, et.al., 2009) in the book New

Media: A Critical Introduction as one of the

properties of new media (in this case the Internet),

namely: networking (besides digital, interactive,

hypertextual, virtual, and simulated).

The use of graphic design work from

crowdsourcing sites has also been written in a

journal entitled “Encouraging Better Graphic Design

in Libraries: a Creative Commons Crowdsourcing

Approach” by Veronica Arellano Douglas and April

Aultman Becker (2015). This research only focuses

on the ease of obtaining graphic design works to

provide convenience for library information

systems. But in this study it can also be seen that

users can fulfill the needs of graphic design works

by utilizing Internet technology. The case study in

this study examines an approach to improve the

quality of graphic design in a library. Through a

combination of social media and cloud-based

storage that can be accessed, and utilizing freely

available graphic designs to be used under a license

that can be shared.

Research on the role of the Internet and its

influence on the workings and ways of distributing

graphic design works with the crowdsourcing

system, as well as how the crowdsourcing system is

carried out by designers and the use of Internet

technology are still rare. It is hoped that this research

can find out how the role and influence of the

Internet on the workings and ways of distributing

graphic design works, as well as the relationship

between patrons and actors. Thus it can be seen the

difference in conditions between before and after

Internet technology is present.

Technoculture consists of two words: techno

(logy) and culture. Donna Haraway calls ‘techne’ (as

long as the word ‘technology’) as ‘a technique that

can be translated or transferred". Culture is the result

of syncretism and hybridization of cross-space

interactions and is increasingly considered a route

made rather than having roots. Culture is a collection

of temporary and interconnected combinations of the

local on the global (Barker, 2004). Raymond

Williams as quoted by Slack and Wise (2005)

considers many historical and contemporary

meanings about culture, including the implications

of caring for or processing (as in agriculture); the

difference between humans (culture) and material

reality, between symbolic (cultural) production and

material production, between culture and society,

between culture and structure; attribution has

something special when someone is cultivated;

designation of separate popular culture as opposed to

high culture; characterization of national differences

(as in the culture of two different countries); and

naming related subgroups or subcultures in national

culture (such as in large cities or rural areas in a

country).

Raymond Williams also said that culture is "the

whole way of life", which means the formation,

arrangement, and organization of what we think,

believe, value, feel, and do. however culture is not

static, but is a process of changing relationships

between old, new, and reconfigured or re-articulated.

On the one hand culture is formed from traditional

works: meanings, values, artifacts and practices that

are derived from previous generations or other

parties. On the other hand culture is shaped by

selected works: the selection, challenge,

arrangement, and life of artifacts and ideas in

everyday life in interactions with changes in material

conditions. Thus culture is a process in which

tradition is reconfigured in historical conditions in

everyday life. In the process of change, culture will

express dominant things (values, feelings, beliefs,

etc.), but also bring things that are residual from the

previous time or social formation, as well as

emergent things from ideas and new process.

Crowdsourcing System and Changes in Media Technology in Reshaping Distribution of Graphic Design Works

419

While the term technology itself is a term that is

not easy to get its definition appropriately.

According to MacKenzie and Wajcman (1985) (in

Bijker, et. Al (eds.), 1989), there are three layers of

understanding that can be distinguished from the

word "technology", first, there are levels of objects

physically or artifacts, for example: bicycles, lights,

plastic. Second, "technology" can refer to activities

or processes, such as: the manufacture or casting of

steel. Third, "technology" can refer to what people

know about what they can do, for example: "know-

how" to design bicycles or operate ultrasound

devices at obstetric clinics.

However, technoculture discussion is not the

same as when discussing technology alone or culture

itself only, technology is an integral part of culture

(Slack and Wise, 2005), so there is no term

"technological age" as we call it: Stone Age, Bronze

Age, Iron Age, Industrial Age, Information Age and

Digital Age. Human culture is always present in

relationships that we understand as technology

(stone, fire, clocks, computers to nanotechnology for

example). Technoculture is defined as the

interrelationships and dependencies between

technology and culture, where technology is

considered to contribute to forming culture and

society (technological determinism) (Bell, 2007) and

on the contrary people are considered to play a role

in shaping technology (cultural determinism) (Slack

and Wise, 2005).

Slack and Wise (2005) call technological

determinism meant that technology is understood as

having an effect and that technological change is the

main determinant of cultural change. Landong

Winner (in Slack and Wise, 2005) explains that

technological determinism is believed to depend on

two hypotheses: (1) that technology is central to

defining what culture is; and (2) that technology

causes effects and that technological change is a

major cause of cultural change. On this issue

technology is the cause. Whereas the opposite is

cultural determinism, namely: culture is understood

as a cause and technology is as a result.

Technological determinists argue that scientific

advances are driving technological progress, but

social determinists say that strong social elites

(military, bureaucrats and corporations) play a

changing role (Green, 2002).

The discussion of technology and culture can not

be separated from the influence with matters of

policy (authority) and the structure of society. Our

lives are inseparable from one or more of these

things, so discussing technoculture is also about

doing activities between: culture and society,

technology and policy (Green, 2002). In this case the

focus of technoculture that is discussed is about

cyberculture and the Internet, which one of the

effects is to the world of digital communication

centers.

Talks about technoculture involving society,

technology, policy and culture also include talking

about 'neutrality' in technology, public interest,

popular culture, regulation, gender, modernism and

postmodernism, and the nature of the information

society. There is a cycle that works here: culture

creates new communication technologies, which are

then put together as technoculture, which then

encourages further technological discovery (Green,

2002). Electricity, apartment buildings, fabric

factories may have technocultural elements, and can

be called technoculture. The balance between techno

(-logi) / culture might be more developed so that

electricity is more technological, and synchronized

swimming becomes more cultural.

Slack and Wise (2005) divide the response to

technology into three: (1) Ludism; (2) Appropriate

Technology (AT); and (3) Unabomber. Ludism is a

term for Luddites who are anti-technology and anti-

progress. They are referred to as machine haters,

anti-technology, anti-progress, anti-development and

anti-life are established. Ludism refers to a

movement of skilled workers in England in 1811-

1817 in the textile industry. They damage (or

precisely sabotage) weaving machines because they

believe that the machine will replace the role of the

workers and make them lose their jobs. But

according to the EP. Thompson explanation. in his

book “The Making of English Working Class” that

these Luddites are not entirely anti-technological,

they only want that "industrial growth should be

arranged according to ethical priorities and profit

seeking must be below what is needed".

Those who accept technology as Appropriate

Technology are about making technological choices

that oppose the development of technology for

technology, or for the benefit of sacrificing quality

of life. In his manifesto Ted Kaczynski aka

Unabomber (as FC / Freedom Club) mentions

human transformation towards the need for

machinery, environmental transformation, and

damage to human dignity and autonomy. These

three responses represent: (1) fear and anti-

technology; (2) cooperating and utilizing

technology; and (3) misusing technology.

Technology is political economy, therefore

technology is political because it can be used for

political purposes but also technology is economical

because it can be used for economic purposes.

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420

Technology is not an element that is taken and used

for a political system or economy, not also

technology creates a political and economic system,

but technology is an integral part where politics and

economics are displayed or in other words

technoculture is political and economical. The next

task is to examine how certain sets of technologies

from technology, politics, and economics are built,

what work they do, and how they can be changed.

Politics is a term relating to the relationship between

power and agency. Whereas economics requires the

production, distribution and exchange of resources,

which include human resources (for example, labor),

natural resources (eg. copper), and information

resources (for example, knowledge) (Slack and

Wise, 2005).

Jameson followed Ernest Mandel who divided

capitalism into three periods which happened to

coincide with three stages of technological

development: (1) industrialization using steam

engines which began in 1848; (2) electric machines

and internal combustion engines (ICE) began in the

1890s; (3) electronic use and nuclear power since

the 1940s. These three stages of technological

development are in accordance with the three stages

of the evolution of capitalism: (1) the stage of

market capitalism / stage of the market economy

which is limited to the territory of the country; (2)

the stage of monopoly or imperialism in which

capitalism is extended to other regions; (3) the final

stage of capitalism in which the region no longer

becomes relevant or multinational capitalism which

is often misunderstood by post-industrial. Jameson

connects these three stages of capitalism with three

stages of cultural production: (1) the stage of

realism; (2) the stage of modernism; (3) the stage of

postmodernism [(Jameson in Durham and Kellner

(eds.), 2006) (Jameson, 1991)].

4 CONCLUSIONS

Technology advances cannot be avoided, including

in the field of graphic design. Technology is indeed

made to help and make it easier for humans to carry

out their work processes. But technology always

brings two sides: benefits and threats. In the case of

crowdsourcing system on graphic design on the

other side made it easier for graphic designers to

distribute their work while freeing them from capital

patrons as they were before Internet technology was

known. But on the other hand problems arise,

namely the blurring of boundaries between

professionals and amateurs, and pseudo-freedom

when graphic designers think they are liberated from

capital patrons but in reality they are under a much

greater power of capital. It takes a strong role from

the government as an intermediary between these

graphic designers and clients who are able to create

an equal relationship.

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Ghazali, Achmad; & Nadinastiti, 2015. National Design

Development Plan 2015 – 2019, PT. Republik

Solusi, Jakarta.

Green, Lelia, 2002. Technoculture – from Alphabet to

Cybersex, Allen and Unwin, New South Wales.

Howe, Jeff, 2009. Crowdsourcing: Why the Power of the

Crowd is Driving the Future of Business, New

York: Crown Publishing.

Jameson, Fredric, 1991. Postmodernism, or the Cultural

Logic of Late Capitalism, Duke University Press.

Jameson, Fredric, 2006. Postmodernism, or the Cultural

Logic of Late Capitalism, dalam Meenakshi Gigi

Durham & Douglas M. Kellner (eds.), Media and

Cultural Studies: Key Works, Malden: Blackwell

Publishing.

Kardinata, Hanny, 2015. Indonesian Graphic Design in

the World Graphic Design Vortex, DGI Press,

Jakarta.

Lister, Martin, et.al, 2009. New Media: A Critical

Introduction, Routledge, New York.

Livingston, Alan; & Isabela, 1994. Encyclopaedia of

Graphic Design + Designers, Thames and

Hudson, London.

Meggs, Philip B.; & Purvis, Alston W., 2012. Meggs’

History of Graphic Design, John Wiley & Sons,

Inc., New Jersey.

Setiyono, Budi (ed.), 2004. Cakap Kecap (1972 – 2003).

Persatuan Perusahaan Periklanan Indonesia,

Jakarta.

Siwi, Panca N., 2016. Community Participation in Jogja

Rebranding (Case Study: Community Political

Participation in Jogja Rebranding through the

Jogja Urun Rembug Forum), Gadjah Mada

University, Yogyakarta.

Crowdsourcing System and Changes in Media Technology in Reshaping Distribution of Graphic Design Works

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Slack, Jennifer Daryl; & Wise, Macgregor, 2005.

Culture and Technology – A Primer, Peter Lang,

New York.

Toffler, Alvin, 1981. The Third Wave, Bantam Books,

New York.

Journals:

Bangsa, Gogor, 2008. E-Magazine as an Alternative

Media for Spreading the Concept of Visual

Communication Design, Journal of Visual Arts

“Ars” – No. 08/May – August, 2008, Faculty of

Visual Arts, Indonesia Institute of the Arts

Yogyakarta.

Bangsa, Gogor, 2017. Between Craftsmen and Designers.

Journal of Visual Communication Design

“Nirmana” Vol. 17 No.1 – January 2017, Visual

Communication Design Department, Faculty of

Art and Design, Petra Christian University,

Surabaya.

Douglas, Veronica Arellano & Becker, April Aultman,

2015. Encouraging Better Graphic Design in

Libraries: a Creative Commons Crowdsourcing

Approach, Journal of Library Administration,

Taylor & Francis.

Links:

Howe, Jeff, 2006. The Rise of Crowdsourcing,

(https://www.wired.com/2006/06/crowds/)

Interviews:

Arifin, Elin Najar (November 28 – 29, 2014).

Santosa, Bayu (April 11, 2019), via WhatsApp Messenger.

Jeharu, Vinsensiana Aprilia Nanda (May 20, 2019).

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