Physicochemical Properties of Semolina-Based Pasta Incorporated with

Chickpea Flour and Dried Moringa Leaves

Adyati Putriekasari Handayani, Nallammai Singaram and Chang Kian Aun

School of Biosciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Taylor’s University, Selangor, Malaysia

Keywords: Moringa, Pasta, Chickpea, Semolina, Calcium.

Abstract: The leaves of Moringa oleifera, or moringa, are known to have various health benefits and commonly found

in home-cooked dishes such as curries and soups. However, the utilization and application of moringa in food

industry is still very limited. Therefore, this study was conducted to determine the physicochemical properties

of semolina-based pasta incorporated with chickpea flour and dried moringa leaves purposely to increase the

functionality of the produced pasta. The physicochemical properties determined included proximate

composition, total dietary fiber, calcium content, texture profile, color, and water activity. The analyses were

conducted on three samples: control (CO) pasta, chickpea-containing (CP) pasta, and chickpea and moringa

leaves-containing (CM) pasta. In terms of chemical composition, both CP and CM pasta had significantly

higher (p<0.05) moisture, fat, protein, ash, total dietary fiber, and calcium content than those of CO pasta. In

terms of texture, addition of chickpea and moringa leaves generally increased the hardness, springiness, and

chewiness index of the pasta. All samples were categorized in the yellow color range and had water activity

values of above 0.9. All in all, the addition of chickpea and moringa leaves was found to be able to increase

the functional benefit of the pasta produced.

1 INTRODUCTION

Moringa oleifera, or more commonly known as

‘moringa’, comes from a monogeneric family named

Moringaceae and usually is found wild and cultivated

throughout the plains, especially in hedges and house

yards (Qaiser et al., 1973). They also grow well in

both countries with humid, hot weather and hot dry

lands (Morton, 1991), making them easily found in

Southeast Asian countries. Moringa is referred to as

‘drumstick tree’, ‘horse radish tree’, ‘kelor tree’

(Anwar and Bhanger, 2003), and ‘Sohanjna’ (Qaiser

et al., 1973). All parts of moringa, such as the leaves,

fruit, flowers, and even the immature pods of the tree,

are known to be highly nutritive (Anwar and Bhanger

2003; D’souza and Kulkarni, 1993; Anwar, Ashraf

and Bhanger, 2005). The leaves, specifically, were

reported to contain β-carotene, protein, vitamin C,

calcium, potassium, and a good source of natural

antioxidants in the form of flavonoids, phenolics, and

carotenoids (Dillard and German, 2000; Siddhuraju

and Becker, 2003). The fresh leaves, flowers, and

tender immature pods are generally consumed in the

form of cooked dishes like soups or curries (The

Wealth of India, 1985). However, the leaves are

sometimes bitter due to the presence of saponins

(Makkar and Becker, 1997), and they also disintegrate

easily during cooking (Jahn, 1991). Therefore,

incorporation of moringa leaves in the form of dried

powder into functional foods is suitable as one of the

ways in obtaining the nutrients available in the leaves

as well as for easier storage and longer shelf life.

Meanwhile, Cicer arietinum L., or better known

as chickpea, is a part of legume family that is grown

and consumed worldwide, especially in the Afro-

Asian countries. It is also called as garbanzo bean or

Bengal gram

(Hirdyani, 2014). Chickpea is generally

rich in dietary fiber, low in fat, and a good source of

vitamins and minerals such as riboflavin, niacin,

thiamine, folate, β-carotene, calcium, and iron

(Murty, Pittaway and Ball, 2010). Similar to other

legumes, chickpea contains significant amounts of all

essential amino acid except for the sulfur-containing

ones, which can be complemented by adding cereals

to the daily diet

(Hirdyani, 2014). Due to its

nutritional composition, chickpea has been used in

various food products to increase their nutritional

values with satisfying results both nutritionally and

organoleptically, such as biscuits

(Yadav, Yadav and

Dull, 2012), breads

(Hefnawy, El-Shourbagy and

Ramadan, 2012), and wheat crackers

(Kohajdova,

Karovicova and Magala, 2011). There also had been

numerous studies about implementation of chickpea

146

Handayani, A., Singaram, N. and Aun, C.

Physicochemical Properties of Semolina-Based Pasta Incorporated with Chickpea Flour and Dried Moringa Leaves.

DOI: 10.5220/0009982000002964

In Proceedings of the 16th ASEAN Food Conference (16th AFC 2019) - Outlook and Opportunities of Food Technology and Culinary for Tourism Industry, pages 146-152

ISBN: 978-989-758-467-1

flour in pasta due to its dietary fiber content, low

glycemic index and amino acid content, since durum

wheat in pasta is generally rich in sulfur-containing

amino acids, which is complementary to the amino

acid content of chickpea

(Osorio-Diaz et al., 2008;

Abou Arab, Helmy and Bareh, 2010; Sabanis, Makri

and Doxastakis, 2006; Bashir, Aeri and Masoodi,

2012).

Pasta is one of the most consumed staple food in

the world, and it is also considered to be a food that is

versatile, inexpensive, easy to store, as well as easy to

prepare

(Hamblin, 1991). In terms of nutrient content,

pasta is low in sodium, low in fat, no cholesterol, low

glycemic index, and a rich source of complex

carbohydrates

(Giese, 1992). As pasta is naturally

bland in flavor, it is also easily adaptable when it

comes to addition of different types of legumes and

vegetables purposely to increase the nutritive value as

well as flavor enhancement. Successful studies on

incorporation of legumes and beans into pasta other

than chickpea included Mexican common bean

(Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

(Gallegos-Infante et al.,

2010), split pea

(Petitot et al., 2010), faba bean (Vicia

faba)

((Gimenez et al., 2012), and lentil

(Wojtowicz

and Moscicki, 2014). Meanwhile, there were also

prior studies which involved addition of vegetables

into different formulations of pasta, such as amaranth

leaves

(Borneo and Aguirre, 2008), broccoli

(Silva et

al., 2013), carrot pomace

(Gull, Prasad and Kumar,

2015), and yellow pepper

(Padalino et al., 2013).

However, to date, there had been no study on

semolina or durum wheat-based pasta with both

chickpea flour and dried moringa leaves added into

the formulation. Therefore, the objective of this study

is to evaluate the physicochemical properties of

semolina-based pasta added with chickpea flour and

dried moringa leaves as compared to those of

semolina-based and semolina-chickpea-based pasta.

2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Materials and Reagents

Semolina flour, dried chickpeas, and moringa leaves

were purchased from local supermarket. Chickpea

flour was produced by milling (Retsch Ultra

Centrifugal Mill ZM 200, Haan, Germany) the dried

chickpea, and the resulting flour was stored in

vacuum-packed aluminum pouches at room

temperature until further usage. Moringa leaves were

washed, rinsed, and dried at 50

C for approximately

8 hours until it reached approximately 5% of moisture

in the final dried samples. The dried samples were

then milled using the centrifugal mill and stored in

Schott bottles at room temperature until further usage.

For chemical reagents, anhydrous di-sodium

hydrogen phosphate, disodium phosphate monobasic

monohydrate, anhydrous sodium carbonate, and

hexane were from Friendemann Schmidt Chemical

(Washington, USA). Kjeldahl catalyst and Celite 545

were from Sigma-Aldrich (Missouri, USA). 95%

ethanol were from John Kollin Corporation

(Midlothian, UK). Ammonium sulphate was from

USB Corporation (Ohio, USA). Boric acid, acetone,

bromocresol green, and methyl red were from Merck

KGaA (Darmstadt, Germany). 96% sulphuric acid

was from Thermo Fisher Scientific (Massachusetts,

US). Hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sodium hydroxide

(NaOH) were from R&M Chemicals (Selangor,

Malaysia). Total dietary fiber kit was from

Megazyme International (Wicklow, Ireland).

2.2 Preparation of Pasta

Three different formulations of pasta were prepared,

consisting of control (CO), chickpea-added (CP), and

chickpea and moringa-added (CM) pasta. The

formulations were as described in Table 1. For the

preparation of CO, semolina flour was mixed with

distilled water and kneaded until the dough had

reached a uniform and adequate consistency for

extrusion, in which the pasta dough did not stick on

the surfaces of pasta extruder. Similar procedure was

conducted for CP pasta by having chickpea flour, and

CM pasta by having chickpea flour and dried moringa

leaf powder added into the mixture. The amount of

chickpea flour and moringa leaf powder added into

the formulations was based on preliminary studies.

The dough was extruded through Micra pasta

extruder (Italgi S.r.l., Italy), and the resulting

extruded pasta was covered in thin layer of wheat

flour to avoid the pasta strands sticking to each other.

The fresh pasta samples were then kept in re-sealable

polyethylene bags and stored at refrigerated

temperature (±4

C) before further analyses and

cooking. Cooking time for all pasta samples was

standardized for 3 minutes.

Table 1: Formulations of control pasta (CO), chickpea-

added pasta (CP) and chickpea and moringa-added pasta

(CM).

Ingredients CO CP CM

Semolina flour (g) 100 100 100

Chickpea flour (g) - 80 80

Moringa leaf

powder (g)

- - 2

Water (ml) 43 43 43

Physicochemical Properties of Semolina-Based Pasta Incorporated with Chickpea Flour and Dried Moringa Leaves

147

2.3 Chemical Analyses

Chemical analyses conducted on all samples

consisted of determination of moisture, ash, protein,

fat, total dietary fiber, and calcium content. All

analyses were performed following the official

methods of analysis of the Association of Official

Analytical Chemists

(AOAC, 2012). Carbohydrate

content was calculated by difference.

2.4 Texture Profile Analysis

Texture profile of both uncooked and cooked samples

was performed using Brookfield CT3 texture

analyzer (Middleboro, USA) on hardness,

springiness, and chewiness index based on the

methodology conducted by Petitot et al.

(2010) with

slight modifications. The texture analyzer was

equipped with a 38.1 mm cylindrical probe and the

texture profile analysis test was performed at a

constant deformation rate of 1 mm/s to 70% of the

initial pasta thickness. The test was conducted in two

cycles and in triplicates.

2.5 Colorimetry Analysis

Colorimetry analysis was done using ColorFlex EZ

Spectrophotometer (HunterLab, Virginia, USA) for

L*a*b* values. The spectrophotometer was

standardized using a black glass standard and a white

tile standard prior to measurement. Samples were put

inside a transparent cylinder and placed on top of the

sample port. This spectrophotometer gives an average

reading and a standard deviation in terms of L*

(lightness, 100 = white, 0 = black), a* (+ red; - green),

and b* (+ yellow; - blue). Hue angles and chroma

values of the samples were calculated following the

equations below:

ℎ

(



)



(



+



)

(1)



(

ℎ



)

=











(2)

2.6 Water Activity

Water activity (a

) was measured using a pre-

calibrated water activity meter (AquaLab LITE,

Aqualab, Washington, USA). Ground samples were

evenly spread on the instrument cups and place onto

the water activity meter. Readings of water activity

were taken in triplicates.

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Chemical Analyses of Pasta

Table 2 shows the results for chemical analyses of all

pasta samples. It could be seen that there was a

significant increase (p<0.05) in moisture content for

pasta containing chickpea flour (CP) as well as pasta

containing both chickpea flour and moringa leaves

(CM) compared to control pasta. This could be due to

higher dietary fiber content of CP and CM pasta

compared to that of control pasta. Higher dietary fiber

content is usually associated with higher water

content due to the tendency of dietary fiber to absorb

and retain water

(Wang, Rosell and de Barber, 2002).

This result was in accordance to those obtained by

Bashir et al. (2012)

and Foschia et al.

(2015) in which

addition of chickpea flour and dietary fiber increased

the moisture content of pasta.

Both CP and CM pasta also had significantly

higher (p<0.05) fat, protein, and total dietary fiber

content than those of control pasta. This was

contributed by the fat, protein, and fiber content of

chickpea which was approximately 6%, 25.3-28.9%

and 17.4%, respectively

(Jukanti et al., 2012).

Moringa is also known to be rich in protein, with the

value reaching approximately 30.29%. It might also

contribute to the fat and fiber content of CM pasta

with 6.50g of fat in 100g of leaves and 11.4% of fiber

(Moyo et al., 2011).

Lastly, both CP and CM pasta were found to have

significantly higher (p<0.05) ash and calcium content

than those of control pasta. Ash content is commonly

positively correlated with total amount of minerals in

a sample, which is represented by the results on

calcium content. CM pasta is shown to have

significantly higher (p<0.05) calcium content than

that of CP pasta as moringa is a rich source of

calcium, with 2009.79mg calcium in 100g of leaves

(Oduro, Ellis and Owusu, 2008). Overall, the results

were in accordance to those of the study conducted by

Dachana et al. (2010) in which cookies containing

moringa leaves had higher fat, protein, total dietary

fiber, and calcium content.

3.2 Texture Profile Analysis of Pasta

Texture profile is considered as the most important

physical property of pasta since it is the most

recognized quality for consumers

(Gull, Prasad and

Kumar, 2015). From the results tabulated in Table 3,

it can be seen that there was significant difference

(p<0.05) in terms of hardness of fresh pasta, with CM

pasta having the highest hardness value. This result

16th AFC 2019 - ASEAN Food Conference

148

Table 2: Chemical analyses of control pasta (CO), chickpea-added pasta (CP) and chickpea and moringa-added pasta (CM).

Pasta

Samples

Moisture (%) Fat (%) Protein (%) Total dietary

fiber (%)

Ash (%) Calcium

(mg/100g)

Carbohydrate

(%)

CO 25.210±0.050

0.190±0.010

11.490±0.040

4.950±0.230

0.008±0.000

31.000±0.590

63.100

CP 27.390±0.480

0.750±0.130

13.690±0.010

5.160±0.550

0.019±0.000

58.000±0.590

58.150

CM 27.360±0.450

0.880±0.030

14.250±0.010

13.790±0.210

0.017±0.005

108.000±0.580

57.490

was in accordance to a prior study conducted by

Petitot et al. (2010) in which fortifying pasta with

35% legume flour significantly increased the

hardness of pasta due to the increase in protein

content and fiber. Among all pasta samples, CM pasta

also happened to be the one with the highest protein

content and fiber (Table 2). However, the trend

changes once the pasta was cooked, in which CP

pasta was the one with the highest hardness value.

This might be due to the boiling process which caused

the fiber in CM pasta to absorb more water than that

of CP pasta as fiber is known to have high affinity of

water

(Wang, Rosell and de Barber, 2002). Legumes

were also correlated with lower water uptake

compared to durum wheat in pasta and insoluble

fibers in moringa leaves

(Petitot et al., 2010).

Table 3: Texture profile analysis of control pasta (CO),

chickpea-added pasta (CP), and chickpea and moringa-

added pasta (CM).

Parameters Pasta

Samples

Texture Profile Analysis

Uncooked Cooked

Hardness (g) CO 631.670±114.

370

649.670±110.53

CP 727.000±224.

177

2954.330±296.2

CM 1405.670±23

0.220

1590.330±198.0

Springiness

(cm)

CO 0.103±0.070

0.630±0.060

CP 0.230±0.040

0.170±0.040

CM 0.137±0.060

0.210±0.010

Chewiness

index (g)

CO 14.000±6.930

369.000±51.110

CP 40.670±8.020

68.670±277.590

CM 62.330±37.42

341.670±177.02

For springiness, it was found that there was

insignificant difference (p>0.05) among all uncooked

pasta samples, but there was significant difference

(p<0.05) in values once the pasta samples were

cooked, with control pasta having the highest

springiness value. This could be attributed by the

gluten protein content in control pasta which was not

substituted with chickpea flour and moringa leaves.

Gluten is the type of protein responsible for the

elasticity of products which contain wheat flour,

including pasta, and it mainly affects the water

absorption, swelling index, optimum cooking time,

cooking loss, texture, appearance, and taste of pasta

in general. Inclusion of dietary fiber in the form of

chickpea flour and moringa leaves would affect the

integrity of protein-starch network, resulting in lower

values of springiness especially after cooking

(Foschia et al., 2015). This also might be the reason

why, albeit insignificant, control pasta had the highest

chewiness index value after cooking.

3.3 Colorimetry Analysis of Pasta

In terms of colorimetry analysis, it was found that

there were significant differences (p<0.05) for all

parameters involved. Uncooked control pasta had the

highest lightness (L*) value, followed by CP pasta

and CM pasta. This was attributed by the

supplementation of chickpea flour and moringa

leaves which have darker color than semolina.

However, CP pasta had the highest lightness value

after cooking, followed by control pasta and CM

pasta. The results were in accordance to the study

performed by Islas-Rubio et al.

(2014) in which there

was generally a decrease in lightness values after

cooking of both semolina pasta and pasta containing

amaranth. Meanwhile, both uncooked and cooked

pasta samples had their a* and b* values within the

positive range of red and yellow hue due to the

presence of color pigments such as carotenoids and

xanthophyll. Besides L* value, b* value is considered

as the other important color parameter for pasta as it

Physicochemical Properties of Semolina-Based Pasta Incorporated with Chickpea Flour and Dried Moringa Leaves

149

describes the yellowness

(Rayas-Duarte, Mock and

Satterlee, 1996). Decrease in yellowness after

cooking was found in all samples, which might be due

to degradation and/or leaching of color pigments,

such as carotenoids and xanthophyll, in pasta during

cooking

(Wood, 2009).

In terms of chroma values of uncooked pasta

samples, CM pasta was found to have the highest

intensity, followed by CP pasta and control pasta. The

intensity of CM pasta reduced significantly after

cooking, resulting in CP pasta to have the highest

chroma value, followed by CM pasta and control

pasta. The decrease in the chroma value of CM pasta

might be due to the leaching of color pigments during

cooking process, which was also shown by the

increasing lightness value of CM pasta after cooking.

Lastly, for hue angle, the color of all pasta samples

was still within the category of yellow hues, with the

color of CM pasta moving towards the category of

green hues due to the presence of chlorophyll A as the

most contained color pigment in moringa leaves

(Mbailao, Mianpereum and Albert, 2014).

Besides texture of pasta, color of pasta is also an

important quality factor for consumers as it influences

choice and preferences. Based on the results obtained,

CM pasta was shown to have darker color shade

Table 4: Colorimetry analysis of control pasta (CO),

chickpea-added pasta (CP), and chickpea and moringa-

added pasta (CM).

Parameters Pasta

Samples

Colorimetry Analysis

Uncooked Cooked

L* CO 75.090±0.030

63.250±0.010

CP 70.640±0.040

68.800±0.010

CM 52.410±0.030

53.630±0.004

a* CO 1.820±0.010

1.130±0.010

CP 4.070±0.010

2.260±0.010

CM 0.600±0.010

0.660±0.010

b* CO 17.920±0.030

17.200±0.030

CP 26.650±0.010

19.000±0.010

CM 31.260±0.030

18.200±0.010

Chroma (C) CO 18.010 17.240

CP 26.960 19.130

CM 31.270 18.210

Hue angle

)

CO 84.200 86.240

CP 81.320 83.220

CM 88.900 87.920

compared to semolina-based control pasta and

chickpea-containing CP pasta. However, some

consumers may accept dark-colored pasta as they are

usually associated with better nutritional value

(Islas-

Rubio et al., 2014).

3.4 Water Activity of Pasta

Based on the results tabulated in Table 5, there was

significant difference (p<0.05) in the water activity of

all uncooked samples, but insignificant difference

(p>0.05) was found for those of cooked pasta

samples. Uncooked control pasta had the highest

water activity, followed by CP pasta and CM pasta.

Since CP and CM pasta had higher moisture content

than control pasta, this indicates that some

constituents in CP and CM pasta caused the water to

be unavailable, most likely to be protein and fiber

(Tudorica, Kuri and Brennan, 2002). Meanwhile,

increase in water activity of cooked pasta samples

was because of gelatinization process happening

during cooking, which led to further penetration of

water into food matrix and formation of multilayer

water adsorption

(Grzybowski and Donnelly, 1977).

Table 5: Water activity of control pasta (CO), chickpea-

added pasta (CP), and chickpea and moringa-added pasta

(CM).

Pasta Samples Water Activity (measured at 25±1

Uncooked Cooked

CO 0.938±0.005

0.962±0.007

CP 0.926±0.003

0.957±0.002

CM 0.900±0.005

0.968±0.002

4 CONCLUSIONS

Semolina-based pasta incorporated with chickpea

flour and dried moringa leaves was successfully

developed. Albeit having significantly different

values for texture attributes, out of the three samples,

pasta sample containing both chickpea flour and dried

moringa leaves was found to have more functional

benefits as it has the highest protein, total dietary fiber

and calcium content. The pasta was also found to

have darker colour than those of control and chickpea

flour-containing pasta, but consumers tend to accept

dark coloured pasta as they are usually associated

with better nutritional values. This shows that

semolina-based pasta containing chickpea flour and

dried moringa leaves has the potential to be one

alternative of functional pasta product.

16th AFC 2019 - ASEAN Food Conference

150

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was supported by Taylor’s University –

Vacation Research Experience Program 2018.

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