Microplastics: Emerging Pollutants for Indonesian Marine and

Fishery Environment

Hari Eko Irianto and Dwiyitno

Research and Development Center for Marine and Fisheries Product Processing and Biotechnology,

Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, Jl. KS Tubun Petamburan VI, Jakarta 10260, Indonesia

Keywords: Microplastics, Plastic Pollution, Marine Debris, Emerging Pollutants, Seafoods.

Abstract: Pollution of microplastics (plastic particles <5 mm) is becoming global concern, including Indonesia.

Microplastics may present in the aquatic environment as a consequence of plastic macrodebris pollution.

Microplastics are mainly contributed from the degradation of plastic debris with additional sources from

cosmetic ingredient and other polymer applications. Concern on microplastic pollution in Indonesian marine

and fishery ecosystem is relatively new, as the first study was just started in 2015 compared to that of globally

in 2004. Similarly, studies on macroplastic (marine litter) in Indonesia was started in 1997, while in other

parts of the world has been conducted since 1969. Based on the studies which are so far conducted

predominantly around Java Island, Indonesian waters are among potential ecosystem for macro and

microplastic pollution, either delivered from local terrestrial area or possible transported from international

waters. Since microplastics may be exposed to seafood in concerned study areas, they may pose adverse

effects, either to seafood species or human health. Established global and national legislation and action plans

need to be implemented practically in order to protect Indonesian waters from massively pollution of macro

and microplastic, as well as developing bio-technology alternatives and enhancing social responsibilities.

1 INTRODUCTION

Microplastic pollutions in the aquatic environment

have been attracting global attention, including

Indonesia. The problem on microplastic in the coastal

marine environment, for example, could not be

separated from the trend of marine debris pollution,

in particular plastic litters distributed in the oceans.

This is due to the increasing quantity of plastics

application in many areas of modern usages, such as

for clothing, packaging, storage, transportation,

construction and various applications of consumer

goods. A study estimated more than 5.25 trillion

pieces of plastic debris (over 250,000 tons) afloat

across the sea (Jambeck et al., 2015). Additionally, a

study revealed that plastic litter in the ocean during

2010 was approx. 4.8-12.7 Mio Tons with Indonesia

is suggested as the second largest producer of marine

debris after China i.e. 0.22 Mio Tons/year as 0.48-

1.29 Mio Tons of which are plastic litters (Erikssen et

al., 2014).

UNEP (2009) defined marine debris as any

persistent, manufactured or processed solid material

discarded, disposed -off or abandoned in the marine

and coastal environment. Those amounts of such

debris are delivered from terrestrial sources entering

the marine environment mainly through rivers

(Libreton et al., 2017), industrial and urban effluents,

and run off of beach sediments and neighbour fields.

The other part could be resulted from direct inputs,

such as off shore activities such as maritime

transportation, capture fishery and litter released from

tourism activities. With regards to the marine litter

composition, plastic debris has become

predominantly of the waste that accumulates on

shorelines, ocean surface or seafloor. Plastic bags,

fishing equipment, food and beverage packaging are

the most common items and contribute more than

80% of litter stranded on beaches, sea surface or

seafloor (Topçu et al., 2013; Thiel et al., 2013;

Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2013; Galgani et al., 2015;

Duhec et al., 2015; Peng et al., 2018; Rech et al.,

2018).

As the global plastic production has significantly

increased from approx. 2 Mio tons in 1950 to 380-415

Mio tons in 2015, it is estimated an amount of 6.300

Mio tons of plastic waste was generated by the end of

2015 (UNEP, 2009; Webb et al., 2013). Of these

232

Irianto, H. and Dwiyitno, .

Microplastics: Emerging Pollutants for Indonesian Marine and Fishery Environment.

DOI: 10.5220/0009982800002964

In Proceedings of the 16th ASEAN Food Conference (16th AFC 2019) - Outlook and Opportunities of Food Technology and Culinary for Tourism Industry, pages 232-240

ISBN: 978-989-758-467-1

wastes, 9% has been recycled, 12% was incinerated

and the rest of 79% will accumulate in the

environment, about 3-10% (8-12 Mio tons) of which

leaks into waterways and ends up in the marine

environment. They are composed predominantly by

coastal mismanaged waste (60-70%) and the rest are

from either terrestrial mismanaged waste, plastic

pellet or fishing gear (Webb et al., 2013). Over a

period of time and environmental exposures, plastic

litter will decompose at various rate depend on the

polymer materials, molecular weight (MW), type of

functional group, hydrophobicity, and crystallinity

(Wilkes & Aristilde, 2017).

Microplastics are fragmented plastics less than 5

mm in diameter generated during the decomposition

of macroplastic caused by abiotic factors (UV

radiation, temperature, physical stress) or biotic

factors (biodegradation process) which can transport

over long distances in the ocean, persist in the seabed

or bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms. There is also

a concern that plastic litter have a significant

influence on marine fauna due to entanglement,

suffocation, and disruption of digestion in birds, fish,

mammals, and turtle, while microplastic shows as

source of toxic chemicals such as persistent organic

pollutants (POPs), phthalates and bisphenol A

(Bryant et al., 2016; Tekman et al., 2017).

Furthermore, free radical compounds may be

produced during plastic degradation and when react

with oxygen will form peroxy-radicals that promote

significant deleterious consequences on the health of

not only marine organisms but also enter the further

food chain (Da Costa et al., 2018). This paper reviews

the current research on the microplastics pollution in

Indonesian aquatic environment, including the

accumulation in seafood species. Further discussion

is focused on the related issues, such as potential

harmful of microplastic to marine organism and

human health, related global and local regulations as

well as some aspects to be concerned in the future.

2 MICROPLASTIC IN

INDONESIAN WATER

The first study on plastic pollution in the environment

and in living organism was reported previously

(Kenyon & Kridler, 1969). Based on an investigation

in Laysan Hawaii, they found plastic materials

including caps of bottle and tube, broken pieces, toys,

and polyethylene bags among indigestible materials

in albatross carcass. Additionally, a number of plastic

exposures were also investigated in 1970s in different

part of the world such as in Sweden (Holmström,

1975), Northwestern Atlantic (Colton et al., 1974),

New Zealand Beach (Gregory, 1978), Great Gull-

New York (Hays & Cormons, 1974), Pacific Ocean

(Wong et al, 1974), Narragansett Bay (Cundell,

1973), New England (Buchanan, 1971; Carpenter et

al, 1972). However, the term marine plastic debris

become familiar in a decade later during the 1984

Workshop on the Impacts and Fate of Marine Debris

held in Honolulu-Hawaii in particular by Shomura

and Yoshida (1985). Previously, marine debris has

been identified and explained in different terms such

as man-made objects (Venrick et al 1973;

Shaughnessy 1980), man-made debris (Feder et al.,

1978), synthetic debris (Balazs, 1979), plastic litter

(Merrell, 1980), and floating plastic debris (Morris,

1980). In fact, the term of marine debris covers not

only plastic, but also metals, glass, and other

materials (rubber, textiles, lumber). However, studies

showed that plastic revealed the majority (more than

80%) of marine litter (e.g. Topcu et al., 2012; Thiel et

al., 2013; Ramirez et al., 2013; Galgani et al., 2015;

Duhec et al., 2015; Peng et al., 2018; Rech et al.,

2018).

Figure 1: Overview of studies on microplastic in Indonesian

waters (1: Rochman et al., 2015; 2: Dewi et al., 2015; 3:

Cordova & Wahyudi, 2016; 4: Cordova et al., 2019; 5:

Falahudin et al., 2017; 7: Cordova & Hermawan., 2018; 8:

Dwiyitno et al,. 2018; 9: Septian et al., 2018; Ismail et al.,

2019; 10: Nugroho et al., 2018; 11: Hiwari et al., 2019; 12:

Asadi et al., 2019; 13: Syakti et al., 2017).

In response to the issue of marine debris pollution,

Thompson et al. (2004) investigated the occurrence

of microplastic in sediment samples from Plymouth-

UK. This is known as the first study on microplastic

exposure in aquatic environment. Additionally,

Browne et al. (2011) reported the first time of

microplastic global distribution on shorelines. In

Indonesia, study on plastic litter in aquatic

environment was started by Uneputty & Evans

(1997). However, instead of microplastic they only

identified macroplastic pollution on surface water and

seafloor of Ambon Bay. Additionally, another study

(Rachman et al. 2015) reported the first study of

Microplastics: Emerging Pollutants for Indonesian Marine and Fishery Environment

233

microplastic in Indonesian water based on the

exposure in 11 fish species collected from fish market

in Makassar. They found that plastic debris (0.1-4.5

mm) was identified in the gut of 21 out of 76 (28%)

fish samples at concentration of up to 21

particles/individual. Afterward, a number of studies

were conducted in different regions of Indonesian

waters either in water, sediment or seafood species as

presented in Table 1.

Based on the established studies concerning

microplastic pollution in Indonesian waters (Table 1),

the studies were so far predominantly conducted

around Java Island (53%). With refer to the

compartment, sediment and water are the

predominantly (77%) samples for microplastic

studies and only 3 out of 13 studies investigated

microplastic exposure in seafood species (Rochman

et al., 2015; Dwiyitno et al, 2018; Ismail et al., 2019).

It can be seen that coastal environment around Java

Island (in particular Jakarta, Banten, and Lamongan

Bays) are relatively more polluted by microplastic

compared to other coastal as performed by

microplastic pollution in sediment samples (Table 1).

This may indicate that these regions are more polluted

by plastic litter, especially from terrestrial sources.

Microplastic concentration in sediment samples also

corresponds to that in seafood samples, suggesting

the bioaccumulation uptake via food web as revealed

by earlier study (Karlsson et al., 2017).

Based on a study conducted by Rochman et al.

(2015), plastic fragments were predominantly shape

(60%) identified in fish gut from Makassar markets,

followed by foam (37%), film (2%) and filament

(1%). This finding is in contrast to that in fish gut

from USA, showed 80% fibers, 10% film, and

fragments, foam, filament at the same frequency of

3.3%. Microplastic composition in fish gut from

Makassar also corresponds to that in 2 fish species

(Trichiurus sp. and Johnius sp.) from Pangandaran

Bay as reported by Ismail et al. (2019 revealed

49.74% fragments, 27.46% film and 22.8% fibers.

Similar to the result from Makassar and Pangandaran

(Rachman et al., 2015; Ismail et al., 2019),

fragmented microplastic was also predominantly

identified in fish and mussel from Jakarta Bay

(Dwiyitno et al., 2018). Fibers and fragments are the

most commonly microplastic shape in seafood

species around the world (de Sa et al., 2018).

Kingfisher (2011) suggested that source of plastic

fibers may be contributed from fishing activities in

the sea or emission from laundry and textile activities

on the land. On the other hand, plastic fragments

could be resulted from decomposed macro plastic

polymers of consumer products (such as beverage

bottles and plastic gallons) fishing nets, fiber lines, or

industrial raw materials (Tanaka & Takada, 2016).

Table 1: Microplastic in different regions of Indonesian

waters.

Reference:

Rochman et al. (2015);

Dewi et al. (2015);

Cordova

& Wahyudi (2016);

Cordova et al. (2019);

Falahudin

et al. (2017);

Syakti et al. (2017);

Cordova &

Hermawan (2018);

Hiwari et al. (2019);

Septian et al.

(2018);

10)

Ismail et al (2019);

11)

Nugroho et al. (2018);

12)

Asadi et al. (2019);

13)

Dwiyitno et al. (2018)

In line with sediment sample, microplastic

concentration in surface water of Jakarta Bay is the

most abundance in comparison to that of other coastal

in Indonesia (Table 1). Based on the a study of

Cordova et al. (2019), foams are the most commonly

microplastic in surface water of Surabaya Coast,

followed by fragments, pellets, and fibers. Foams are

typically result of fragments or pieces of styrofoam

(Tanaka & Takada, 2016; Zhou et al., 2018),

indicating the source from domestic waste. However,

different result was performed from surface water in

Sumba (East Nusa Tenggara) which was dominated

No Location

Sample Concentration

Ref

1 Makassar

Oreochromis

niloticus

Katsuwonus

pelamis

Rastrelliger

kanagurta

Decapterus

macrosoma

Spratelloides

gracilis

Carangidae

Siganus argente

Siganus fuscesce

Siganus

canaliculatus

utjanus gibbu

Selar boops

0 part/individual

0-3 part/individual

0-21 part/individual

0-5 part/individual

0-14 part/individual

0-1 part/individual

0 part/individual

0-1 part/individual

0 part/individual

2 Muara Badak,

Sediment 57-91 part/kg dw

3 Lampung

Sediment 0-14 part/cm

4 Surabaya

Water 0.38-0.61 part/L

5 Banten

Sediment 101-431 part/ kg dw

6 Cilacap coast

Water 0.27-0.54 part/m

7 Sumba,NTT

Water 70-120 part/m

8 Kupang,NTT

Surface water 0-0.05 part/m

9 Pangandaran

Sediment 26-68 part/kg

10 Pangandaran

Trichiurus sp.

Johnius sp.

4-28 part/indv

2-14 part/indv

10)

11 Benoa Bay

Water

Sediment

0.43-0.58 part/m

0-113 part/kg

11)

12 Lamongan

Sediment 144-353 part/kg

12)

13 Jakarta Bay

Water

Sediment

Fish

Mussel

29 part/m

(max)

420 part/kg (max)

20 part/indv (max)

50 part/indv (max)

13)

16th AFC 2019 - ASEAN Food Conference

234

by fiber plastics (45.45%), followed by granule

(36.36%) and other plastic form (Cordova &

Hernawan, 2018). Similar result was performed in the

other region in East Nusa Tenggara (Kupang) which

was dominated by fragment and fiber plastics,

followed by pellets and film (Hiwari et al., 2019).

Fragment plastic was also the most abundance

mikroplastic in surface water at Benoa Bay, followed

by film and fibers (Nugroho et al., 2018).

Referring to other region of the world, the present

of plastic fibers as the main microplastic form (60–

70%) was found in the Rhône and Têt Water in the

Mediterranean Sea, followed by foams and films

(Constant et al., 2018). On the other hand, another

study in the Northern Ionian Sea, Mediterranean Sea

showed fragment plastic was the most dominant form

(99.7–100%) in surface water (Digka et al., 2018). In

a study conducted in Cilacap Coast, Syakti et al.

(2017) reported that microplastics in surface water

were composed by different polymers i.e.

polystyrene, polypropylene, low density polyethylene

(LDPE), and other polymers. Another study on

macroplastic assessment in Jakarta Bay revealed that

polyethylene and polypropylene are the most plastic

litter identified in surface water, followed by

polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polystyrene,

polyvinyl and other plastic polymers (Dwiyitno et al.,

2018). Accordingly, microplastic fragments are more

dominant in surface water of Jakarta Bay than non-

fragment one.

3 POTENTIAL HARMFUL OF

MICROPLASTIC

The presence of microplastics contaminant in the

aquatic environment must be taken into account due

to the potential risk to either aquatic organisms

consuming the microplastics or human health through

food chain. Studies showed that different types of

conventional plastic demonstrate different

decomposition rate, and consequently to the degraded

microplastic. The most commonly polymers applied

in plastic material include polyethylene/PE,

polypropylene/ PP, polyethylene terephthalate/PET,

polystyrene/PS, polyvinyl chloride/PVC,

polycarbonate/PC, polyamides/PA/ nylon), acrylics,

polylactic acid/PLA, polyurethanes/PU and cellulose

acetate/CA (Plastics Europe, 2016). Physico-

chemical properties such as molecular weight,

density, melting temperature, young are modulus,

glass transition temperature and water absorption

may influence the decomposition rate (Webb et al.,

2013). The Marine Conservancy estimated the

decomposition rates of CA around 1-5 years, PE 20

years, PS 50 years, PET/PETE 400 years, and

PA/nylon around 600 years (Andrady, 2015).

Plastic debris, including microplastics, can be

ingested by various aquatic organisms across food

chain and become global concern (Lusher et al.

2013). In general, microplastic ingestion can lead to

decreased nutritional status and bioaccumulation of

hydrophobic organic compounds that sorb to the

microplastic particles in the water and desorb in the

gut (Cole et al., 2015; Rochman et al., 2014). This

could threat the seafood biodiversity and food

security. Boerger et al. (2010) found that fish in North

Pacific Central Gyre consume microplastics of an

average size of 1–2.79 mm. another study found that

Oryzias latipes (Japanese medaka fish) eats less than

0.5 mm polyethylene fragments (Rochman et al.,

2013). Similarly, previous study observed

microplastics of 100–1000 μm in fish stomach from

Giglio Island (Avio et al., 2017). Güven et al. (2017)

revealed that microplastics were found in the intestine

of some Mediterranean Sea fish. Studies showed that

shellfish such as bivalve molluscs tend to be

important source of microplastic exposure at present

is via (shellfish). As filter feeding species, bivalves

are directly exposed to microplastics via pumping

surrounding water column and retaining particles

from suspension on their gills for subsequent

ingestion. It is of concern that depuration may excrete

microplastics in the bivalves with different rate (28-

46%) depend on polymer type, size, concentration,

time and the presence of other contaminants

(Wood et

al., 2018; Birnstiel et al., 2019).

The presence of microplastic in aquatic ecosystem

demonstrated to reduce population growth, and

reduced chlorophyll concentrations in the algae. This

affects to a reduced body size and severe alterations

in reproduction of Daphnia species, lowering of

numbers and body size of neonates, while the number

of neonate malformations among neonates rose to

68% of the individuals (Besseling et al., 2014;

Aljaibachi & Callaghan, 2018). Further exposure of

microplastics to marine life showed brain damage and

behavioural abnormalities in fish, oyster fertility,

hepatic stress, oxidative damages (Sussarellu et al.,

2016; Barboza et al., 2018; Mattsson et al., 2017).

Although the study was carried out on fish, the

repercussions of human exposure to plastic particles

must be better understood. The smaller of plastic

particles may penetrate deeply into organ tissue

(EFSA, 2016) and the translocation of plastic

particles from the gut to the lymphatic system has

Microplastics: Emerging Pollutants for Indonesian Marine and Fishery Environment

235

furthermore been observed in different species

(Browne et al., 2008; Brennecke et al., 2015).

A number of studies reported that microplastic

may release potentially toxic substances into the

water such as from chemical additives and polymer

derivatives. Additionally, plastic pellets tend to

absorb toxic metals (e.g. As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Co, Fe, Pb)

and dangerous hydrophobic contaminants (like

brominated flame retardants/BFRs, PAHs, PCBs,

dioxin, and DDT) from surrounding water (Hirai et

al., 2011; Engler et al., 2012; Holmes et. al., 2012;

Rochman et al., 2014). Plastic additive such as BPA

is also known as endocrine disrupting compounds

(EDCs) which is commonly associated with sex ratio

imbalances, disruption in fertility cycles, immune

disorders, as well as delayed neurodevelopment in

children and hormone-related cancers (Bergman et

al., 2013).

Phthalates, often known as plasticizers, are used

in plastics to increase flexibility of plastic which are

also categorized as EDCs. They are also used as

solvents and can be found in various products,

ranging from vinyl on floors, to cosmetics and toys.

Even though phthalates are metabolized in the body

and the metabolites could pass out of the body

through urine, health concern is raised regarding the

developmental and/or reproductive toxicity (Meeker

et al., 2009; CDC, 2013). BFRs such as

polybrominated diphenyl ethers/PBDE are

commonly used in plastic products such as fire proof

electronics, synthetic foams and textiles, and plastic

furniture, have also raised concern globally. Sensitive

populations such as children and pregnant women are

thought to be at higher risk of exposure, and some

BFRs have been found in human breast milk

(Birnbaum & Staskal, 2004). BFRs are believed to

impair neurological behavior, developing immune

systems, and thyroid hormones (Darnerud, 2003).

Nonylphenols ethoxylates (NPE) are antioxidants

and plasticizers commonly used for the production of

plastics and other applications such as paints,

pesticides, detergents and personal care products

(Sussarellu et al., 2016; Barboza et al., 2018). In the

environment, NPE produces intermediate products

known as nonylphenol (NP) which is considered as

endocrine disruptors and their use is prohibited in the

European Union due to the possible adverse effects to

the environment and human health (Engler, 2012;

Rani et al., 2015). NP has been found to leach out

from plastic bottles to the water content (Loyo-

Rosales et al., 2004). Moreover, effluents from a

waste water treatment plants are the major source of

NP and NPE in the environment (Soares et al., 2008).

4 LEGISLATION AND FUTURE

CONCERN FOR SEAFOOD

SAFETY

Seafood represents an essential source of protein in

Indonesia, contributing 13.36 % of total protein

source, which is higher than non-seafood animal

protein/meat and poultry (9.99%). In average,

national fish consumption is approximately 47.34

kg/person/year correspond to 11.65 Mio tons of

seafood/year. Seafood also important commodity for

2.6 Mio local fisherman with annual fish production

of 23.51 Mio tons comprising of 7.07 Mio tons

(30.5%) from capture fishery and 16.11 Mio tons

(69.5%) from aquaculture with export volume 955

thousand tons or 5,200 Mio USD (MMAF, 2018). For

that reason, seafood safety is an increasingly

important issue with respect to microplastics, in

particular to support the governmental campaign such

as “Gemar Makan Ikan” (“Eating Fish”) campaign in

elevating seafood consumption in the region.

A number of legislations have been established by

Indonesian government in order to support the quality

and safety assurance of seafood products either for

domestic or export markets. Governmental Law

No.18/2012 chapter IV, for example, states that

central and local government obliges to assure the

safety of food at all supply chain. Additionally,

chapter 7 of the law No.45/2009 asks the Ministry of

Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) to prevent the

contamination and destruction of marine and fishery

resources, including the environment. Another decree

No.52A-/KEPMEN-KP/2013 deals with the

requirements of quality assurance and safety of

seafood products in production, processing and

distribution. The decree elaborates the general

structure and hygiene requirements of the whole

chain including during fishing, landing, storage, fish

markets, as well as the food security and health

standards.

With regard to microplastic contaminant in

seafood an aquatic environment, there is general

regulation either in Indonesia or globally. However, a

number of legislation instruments have been

established in order to reduce the risk and protect

marine environment from plastic litter accumulation.

During the London Convention in 1972, United

Nations agreed to control ocean dumping, followed

by the International Convention for the Prevention of

Pollution from ships (MARPOL). Additionally,

Annex V of MARPOL was introduced in 1988 with

the intention of banning the dumping of most garbage

and all plastic materials from ships at sea. A total of

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236

122 countries have ratified the treaty. Furthermore, a

number conventions were held resulted more

implementing agreements to combat plastic pollution

to marine and coastal environment, such as Oslo and

Paris conventions in 1972 and 1974 for controlling

marine pollution in the north-east Atlantic Ocean

around Europe. Numerous cooperative efforts have

also been held, such as a Protocol on Integrated

Coastal Zone Management, involving 21 countries

bordering the Mediterranean Sea, as well as the

European Union, approved in 2008. Under the UNEP,

the Global Partnership on Marine Litter (GPML) was

launched in June 2012 at Rio de Janeiro-Brazil

(UNEP, 2019). Specifically, UN-SDGs

accommodate marine pollution and marine litter

under the 14

Goal i.e. conserve and sustainably use

the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable

development (UN, 2019).

For national level, different countries have

generated their legislation concerning marine debris,

such as US Marine Debris Program, Marine Plastic

Pollution Research & Control Act, UK legislations on

garbage from ships & PRFs, beach clean-up &

awareness, Scotland Marine Litter Strategy, and

Taiwan’s Marine Pollution Control Act. In 2003, the

government of Taiwan released a system that plastic

bags are no longer available in markets without

charge. However, Bangladesh is known as the first

country to ban plastic bags in 2002. In 2005, French

parliament passed legislation to prohibit all non-

biodegradable plastic bags, followed by China’s

parliament to impose a ban to supermarkets from

providing free plastic bags less than 0.025 mm in

thick since January 2008. In Indonesia, marine debris

issue has been regulated in Presidential Regulation

No.16/2017 concerning Marine Policy; No.97/2017

concerning National Policy and Strategy on Waste

Management; No.83/2018 concerning Marine Debris.

Indonesia has also established Action Plan on Marine

Plastic Debris 2017-2025 focusing on the reduction

of 70% marine plastic by 2025. However specific

legislation on microplastic pollution either in marine

environment or seafood product is not established yet.

Currently, biotechnology and innovation has been

challenged for the mitigation alternative in reducing

plastic debris pollution. Biodegradable plastics have

been produced as sustainable option to replace

demand and consumption of plastic in many

countries, including Indonesia since they break down

much faster than conventional plastic. As the result,

studies on biodegradable plastic, as well as

investigation for the solution of traditional plastic

waste problem are encouraged such as plastic-

consuming or degrading microorganisms and

discovery of new kind of biodegradable plastic

material (Shah et al., 2008; Web et al., 2013; Urbanek

et al., 2018). Noteworthy, public education is another

key point in changing community behaviors and

awareness such as to over-consume plastics, discard

and thus pollute, need to be promoted to the fullest. A

number approaches have been promising and well

implemented to succeed in reducing plastic problem

such as recycling and zero waste concept as well as

extend producer responsibility that have been

implemented in many countries.

5 CONCLUSIONS

A number of studies showed that Indonesian waters

are among potential ecosystem for macro and

microplastic pollution, either delivered from local

terrestrial area or transported from international

waters. Many of literatures have revealed adverse

effects of microplastic exposure, either to aquatic

ecosystem, seafood species as well as the possibility

to human health. Concentration of microplastic in

marine and fishery ecosystem has to be concern as

they may pose adverse effects, either to seafood

species or the possibility to human health. Established

global and national legislation and action plans need

to be implemented practically in order to protect

Indonesian waters from massively macro and

microplastic pollution, as well as developing

biotechnology alternatives and enhancing social

responsibilities.

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