Architecture and Low Power Management of a Deep-tissue Medical

Implant System Powered by Human Body Energy Harvesting

Elisabeth Benke

, Adrian Fehrle

, Johannes Ollech

, Simon Schrampfer

and Jörg Franke

Institute for Factory Automation and Production Systems, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany

Sentinum UG, Nürnberg, Germany

Keywords: Implantable Medical Devices, Energy Harvesting, Power Management, Hybrid Energy Storage Systems.

Abstract: Active mechatronic implants applied to provide therapy of insufficient bodily functions and acquisition of

biomedical data are an emerging field in the context of Medicine 4.0. Wireless data transmission between the

implant and out-body devices enables patients and health care professionals to access physiological data as

well as take technical control and also allows for home monitoring solutions. Due to the limitations associated

with primary batteries or conventional wireless power transferring methods in deep-tissue layers, human body

energy harvesting is a promising alternative or complement for power supply. A high efficient power

management in order to reduce the implanted device’s energy consumption is not only requested to effectively

use the limited amounts of energy harvested but also contributes to extend implantation times and thus avoid

invasive surgical procedures. This paper presents solution approaches for both software- and hardware-based

low power management and storage options for active deep-tissue implants using hybrid energy storage

systems and considering miniaturisation requirements of devices powered by energy harvesting.

1 INTRODUCTION

While battery-powered medical implant devices such

as pacemakers, neurostimulators or cochlear implants

are commonly applied and widely accepted, the trend

towards energy harvesting from the human body not

only opens a completely new field of novel energy

self-sufficient implants with new actuator principles,

but also addresses the disadvantages associated with

primary battery technologies, such as dominating the

device’s size as well as the frequent need for

replacement or recharging. Devices powered by

harvested energy have a longer lifetime and are

considered to provide more comfort and safety than

battery-powered implants (Hannan et al., 2014).

Conventional approaches for the energy supply of

implantable medical devices (IMDs) such as

transferring energy from outside the body using wires

or inductive coupling are associated with several

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6610-4430

https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9803-5620

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4917-8964

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3594-8286

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0700-2028

limitations, especially regarding size, bio-

compatibility and the implantation depth power can

be transferred into. Particularly the powering of deep-

tissue devices with implantation depths >10 cm

presents a challenge, making body energy harvesting

an interesting alternative or complement.

According to Paulo J. & Gaspar P.D. (2010) the

produced power of the human body ranges between

81 W during sleep and 1630 W while sprint walking.

As this is potentially sufficient energy to power

microelectronic devices, several approaches to

harvest energy from the human body have been

proposed. However, the usable amount of harvested

energy to power medical devices underlies several

limitations, requesting a low power architecture

design as well as an efficient power management. The

required miniaturisation of the harvesting device and

low efficiency factors restrict the total amount of

energy that can be harvested. Dependent on the

harvesting principle, the used energy source may not

Benke, E., Fehrle, A., Ollech, J., Schrampfer, S. and Franke, J.

Architecture and Low Power Management of a Deep-tissue Medical Implant System Powered by Human Body Energy Harvesting.

DOI: 10.5220/0009107302270234

In Proceedings of the 13th International Joint Conference on Biomedical Engineering Systems and Technologies (BIOSTEC 2020) - Volume 1: BIODEVICES, pages 227-234

ISBN: 978-989-758-398-8; ISSN: 2184-4305

227

be permanently available. Furthermore, the human

body presents a perfectly balanced energy system – the

consequences of a sudden energy removal from its

inner workings have not been well studied so far.

The design of active deep-tissue IMDs presents

numerous challenges, not only concerning their energy

supply but also regarding a secure wireless

communication between the implant situated in deep-

tissue body layers and an out-body device.

Conventional communication principles have various

limitations, especially regarding their size and

transmission range in human body tissue.

This paper features specific challenges regarding

the system architecture of active deep-tissue IMDs

architecture of a system powering a radio module for

wireless communication and an actuator or sensor unit

as well as intended low power management options are

presented. In order to optimise the energy storage

efficiency, the combination of two different storage

technologies seems suitable since characteristic

disadvantages of one technology can be absorbed by

the other (Böhm et al., 2018). Thus hybrid systems

combining the advantages of lithium-ion batteries

(LIB) and ultracapacitors (UC) are used in the

presented system.

2 HUMAN BODY ENERGY

HARVESTING PRINCIPLES

Mateu et al. (2014) classify two ways to harvest energy

from the human body: active and passive power.

Accordingly, passive power is harvested from the

patient’s or user’s everyday actions, such as breathing

or walking motions, whereas active power is harvested

from actions the person especially executes for

harvesting reasons. This paper focuses on the former

harvesting form only.

Regarding the underlying physical principle,

harvesting methods can be divided into three types

according to Figure 1.

2.1 Mechanical Energy

Various approaches to harvest mechanical energy from

human body motions or body fluidic flows have been

presented in literature. As an example, mechanical

energy can be harvested through piezoelectric elements

in various in- and out-body positions. Approaches to

drive piezoelectric elements by the rotation of joints

(Cheng et al., 2015; Hannan et al., 2014), the vibrations

human breathing motions (Saida et al., 2018), the

Figure 1: Human body energy harvesting methods and

examples.

pulsating energy of the aorta (Zhang et al., 2015) or the

pressure generated in shoe soles by human walking

motions (Hannan et al., 2014; Johari & Rashid, 2017)

have been shown. Furthermore, concepts to power

harvesters by running turbine generators are proposed.

Micromechanical turbines can be driven by footstep-

induced airflow (Fu et al., 2015) or the cardiac output

blood flow in a peripheral artery (Pfenniger et al.,

2014). Niroomand & Foroughi (2016) designed a

rotary magnetic generator to harvest energy from

walking motions.

2.2 Thermal Energy

Thermal energy can be harvested from temperature

differences due to the Seebeck Effect, making this

principle an option to harvest energy from human body

heat differences. As shown in several publications

presenting thermoelectric modules, usually

comparatively low output powers in the range of µW

are generated as the associated temperature gradients

typically do not exceed a few K. In the early work of

Strasser et al. (2003) a CMOS thermoelectric generator

harvesting electrical energy from waste heat is

presented, achieving a power output of 1 µW with

generators in the size of 1 cm² and a temperature

gradient of 5 K making this sufficient to power a

human wrist watch by body heat. In (Wang Z. et al.,

2009) a thermoelectric generator creating an output

power of 0,3 nW when worn on the human body is

presented. Shi et al. (2018) conduct wrist wearing

experiments with a copper-foam-based wearable

thermoelectric generator to power a miniaturised

accelerometer.

2.3 Biochemical Energy

Bio-fuel cells are an alternative approach to power

IMDs by using bodily fluids surrounding the implant

as a potential energy source. Hereby biochemical

energy is transformed into electrical energy based on

BIODEVICES 2020 - 13th International Conference on Biomedical Electronics and Devices

228

electrochemical reactions processing glucose or

oxygen (Ben Amar et al., 2015). Different approaches

to harvest energy using body fluids such as urine,

saliva (Göbel et al., 2016) or human perspiration (Jia et

al., 2013) have been proposed.

3 SPECIFIC CHALLENGES

REGARDING DEEP-TISSUE

IMPLANTS

The development towards in-body systems that are in

a more miniaturised scale enables implanting surgery

procedures to be less invasive and makes the implant

less impairing for the patient. According to Cadei et al.

(2014) the size limit typically is in the range of 1 cm³.

Active medical implants in deep-tissue body layers

present specific challenges regarding their design and

functionality in comparison to established implants

closer to the body surface, such as cardiac pacemakers

or neurostimulators. Since wires implanted in the

human body present a potential infection risk, wireless

communication and energy supply is desired.

3.1 Communication

In order to enable patients and health care professionals

to access physiological data or take technical control,

e.g. to activate the system’s actuators, a secure

communication path between the implant and a

corresponding out-body device needs to be established,

using the human body tissue as a transmission medium.

Teshome et al. (2019) present a comparison of

different wireless communication principles regarding

their transmission range. Accordingly, antenna based

radiofrequency (RF) signal communication enables by

far the widest in-body transmission range of up to 2 m,

while electric-field based and ultrasonic

communication enable much smaller ranges of up to 10

cm. Other presented technologies are too limited in the

transmission range to be taken into consideration for

communication with deep-tissue implants.

The transmission of tissue with RF signals has been

investigated in various works. Living body tissue

generally absorbs RF signals and is an inapplicable

channel to high-frequency electromagnetic waves.

(Teshome et al., 2019) Short- wave signals, such as the

in wireless body area networks (WBAN) widely used

2,36 – 2,4 GHz band appear to be not suitable to

communicate with deep-tissue implants as attenuation

values increase with frequency (Alomainy et al., 2006).

Therefore, longer-wave electromagnetic signals such

as the 400 MHz frequency band set aside in the

Medical Implant Communication Service (MICS)

specification especially for medical implants and

devices are proposed. Since the size of the RF-enabling

antenna is proportional to the wave length of the used

signal, shorter frequency signals, however, have the

downside of requiring larger antennas potentially using

more space of the implanted unit.

3.2 Energy Supply

Active implants not only feature a communication unit

but also a logic unit providing adequate computing

power as well as an actuator or sensor module, all of

which require a sufficient wireless energy supply.

Inductive coupling is a commonly used principle

enabling mutual inductance between a primary coil

integrated in an out-body station and a secondary coil

implanted in the human body. This method is limited

to short implantation depths as with transcutaneous

IMDs or implants closer to the body surface since the

power absorbed by human tissue has to be minimised

in order to prevent tissue heating or other side effects.

The size of the coils usually is in the range of several

cm as the coupled energy is dependent on the coil size,

which counteracts the requirement of a high

miniaturisation (Ben Amar et al., 2015).

Regarding the limitations associated with

conventional methods, energy harvesting is a

promising alternative to power deep-tissue medical

implants, provided that the required energy to power

the device is harvested in the body region the implant

is situated in.

To efficiently generate electrical energy from

thermal harvesting, there needs to be a sufficient

temperature difference between the hot and cold end of

the applied thermocouple since the output power

depends on the dimension of this temperature gradient

(Ben Amar et al., 2015; Cadei et al., 2014). Between

the human body and the environment there is only a

small gradient in the range of 3 – 5°C (Mateu et al.,

2014), but in deep-tissue layers body temperature

differences are even smaller making them too

insignificant to effectively harvest thermal energy, thus

only the harvesting of mechanical energy is taken into

consideration by the authors.

4 SYSTEM STRUCTURE AND

OPERATION

Due to the characteristics of human body energy

harvesting regarding the time periods power is

Architecture and Low Power Management of a Deep-tissue Medical Implant System Powered by Human Body Energy Harvesting

229

Figure 2: Architecture of the proposed system showing data, signal and power flow of the in-body and out-body device.

generated and the therefore required efficient power

management as well as the presented challenges of

communicating with devices situated in deep tissue,

suitable system architectures are required addressing

these issues.

The aim of the presented concept is to set up a

general system which can be applied for various

technical principles of energy harvesting, enable an

efficient power management of the limited amounts

of harvested energy and provide a communication

unit in order to establish a communication path

between the IMD and an out-body device when

requested by the patient or operator. Since the energy

source may only be temporarily available, the

architecture is designed to provide flexibility

regarding irregular time periods of the energy

harvesting process and the therefore strongly varying

load peaks.

As presented in Figure 2, the proposed system

consists of an energy harvesting unit, an accumulator

unit for energy storing and a logical unit regulating

the subsequent sensor or actuator and RF-

communication module. In order to reduce the

system’s energy consumption, load switches

regulated by the MCU are applied to turn on and turn

off the powering of the sensor or actuator and

communication unit. A wakeup-receiver is provided

to receive signals from an out-body device to wake up

the MCU from a power saving mode when system

operation is required by the patient or health care

professional. In the following the intended energy

storing unit and power management methods are

described in detail.

4.1 Energy Storage Unit

The accumulator unit of the circuit fulfils two

essential tasks: The storage of the electrical energy

generated by the harvesting module and the

subsequent supply of the required energy for the logic

module and actuator or sensor unit. The type of the

energy storage unit depends on the amount of energy

to be stored, the required power drain, the storage

duration and the target number of charge cycles.

The most commonly used type of energy storage

in IMDs are lithium ion batteries (LIB). They are

characterized by a high energy density and low self-

discharge which enables a long storage duration.

Since LIBs are solid state batteries, the mobility of the

charge carriers within the batteries is limited. This

also results in a limitation of the available power

density. Another disadvantage is the limited number

of charge cycles (Yu et al., 2018). Furthermore, the

degradation of the LIB capacity will be accelerated

when there are power peaks during the charging (Zou

et al., 2015).

As stated before, this approach also considers

energy generating methods harvesting from body

motions that are only temporarily executed by the

patient. In these cases, lithium-ion batteries are not

suitable as due to their low power density they cannot

absorb all energy provided and can even be damaged

by occuring power peaks (Zou et al., 2015). A

potential alternative to LIBs are ultracapacitors (UC).

Due to their very high power density compared to

LIBs, UCs can absorb almost the entire energy

generated during a short-term power peak (Burke,

2000). The better power drain compared to the solid

state LIB is based on a higher mobility of the charge

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carriers. However, since the free movement of the

charge carriers results in a higher self-discharge, the

absorbed energy’s storing duration in the UC is

comparatively short. In the presented circuit concept,

the storage duration is desired to be as long as

possible, so using a UC alone is no ideal alternative

to a LIB.

One possibility to achieve all necessary

requirements for the energy storing unit is the use of

a hybrid energy storage system (HESS). A HESS

combines a classic LIB with a UC. The UC takes over

the short-term absorption of high power amounts and

protects the battery, while the latter can store the

energy for a longer period of time so that it can be

used later to power the downstream modules. HESSs

are already being used in electric vehicles with larger

scaling. For example, they make it possible to utilize

the short-term high power generated during

regenerative braking recuperation with a high degree

of efficiency and at the same time protect the

expensive lithium batteries in the car from peak

power. (Hochgraf et al., 2014; Hu et al., 2018)

There are two possible options for the realisation

of a HESS within the framework of the presented

circuit concept. In a simpler design, the HESS

consists of only one LIB and a parallel-connected UC.

This enables an implementation which is easy to

realise and allows for a high degree of

miniaturisation. (Lukic et al., 2007) Due to a lack of

interconnected control electronics, however, the

energy stored in the UC cannot be completely utilised

for power supply of the downstream units. (Gao et al.,

2005) Figure 3 shows a schematic of the second

option. A unidirectional DC/DC converter is

interconnected between the UC and a LIB. This

enables a higher degree of utilization of the energy

stored in the UC, but results in a larger space

requirement of the HESS, which must be taken into

account when designing and using the circuit.

(Lhomme et al., 2005)

The energy generated in the harvesting module is

temporarily stored in the UC and transferred to the

lithium battery via the DC/DC converter. From there,

the remaining circuit including the actuator module is

supplied with the previously generated energy.

Combined with a UC, the LIB is exposed to less stress

in terms of varying load peaks during the loading

process. As a result, the lifecycle of the LIB is

significantly prolonged which enables longer

implantation times in the body and thus leads to a

minimisation of invasive surgical interventions. (Cao

& Emadi, 2012)

Figure 3: Hybrid energy storage system with integrated

DC/DC-converter.

4.2 Power Management Methods

Since the amounts of output power are limited due to

the stated reasons, an efficient management of the

harvested energy is required to be able to unfailingly

power the logic module and actuator or sensor unit

according to the patient’s needs.

4.2.1 Hardware-enabled Management

Providing that the patient only temporarily

communicates with the IMD in order to operate the

actuator or access biological data stored, it is

determined which of the intended system’s modules

need to be operated only temporarily. As it is desired

to reduce leakage currents caused by passive

components, the sensor or actuator and

communication modules are only to be powered when

their operation is required. This is ensured by an

appropriate design of the hardware architecture as

presented in Figure 2. Load switches are applied as a

basic solution to turn on and turn off the powering of

the downstream modules, i.e. the sensor or actuator as

well as the RF-communication module.

4.2.2 MCU Wake-up Options

For many applications MCUs are designed in such a

way that they are able to enter different low-power or

sleep modes in order to reduce their energy

consumption. In these modes typically the

functionality of different components, such as the

CPU, memory or peripheral components, is reduced

at different levels or completely turned off.

In order to establish a communication path

between the out-body device and the RF-

communication module, the system is listening for

occurring external connecting requests (Figure 4). In

order to reduce the energy consumption, the MCU

can be set to turn into a low-power mode between

these high-energy consuming listening events. This

software-controlling of frequent listening events,

however, is connected to the downside that the CPU

Architecture and Low Power Management of a Deep-tissue Medical Implant System Powered by Human Body Energy Harvesting

231

cannot be turned off which causes an increased

energy consumption even in low-power mode, as

shown in Figure 5.

In deep-sleep mode, however, the CPU is disabled

from executing commands. In order to return to active

mode in this case an interrupt needs to be set to be

triggered by an external energy pulse received by the

wakeup receiver (Figure 4). While this option is the

most power-saving as the system is only woken up

Figure 4: Hardware- and software-based wakeup operation

compared to constant active mode.

Figure 5: Power consumption levels of hardware- and

software-based wakeup operation compared to constant

active mode. (S) Sleeping, (L) Listening, (C) Communi-

cating, (A/S) Actuating/Sensing.

from sleep-mode when requested by the patient via

the out-body device (Figure 5), it presents the

challenge of wirelessly transmitting the interrupt

impulse through human body tissue. To solve this

issue, alternative concepts of power transfer in deep-

tissue layers, such as ultrasound wakeup, have to be

taken into consideration.

5 CONCLUSIONS

Since external approaches to wirelessly power IMDs

situated in deep-tissue layers underlay several

limitations, human body energy harvesting is a

promising powering approach. In this paper therefore

a system architecture for an IMD powered by

harvesting of mechanical energy is proposed. The

presented system provides great flexibility regarding

the used harvesting principle and enables the patient

to wirelessly communicate with the IMD according to

his needs. Since the harvested energy may not be

permanently available, hybrid storage systems

combining the advantages of conventional LIB and

UC are intended to be used for energy storage.

Research approaches have shown that these systems

not only are able to efficiently process load peaks, but

also offer great potential regarding the

miniaturisation of the system and prolonged

implantation times due to an extended number of

possible load cycles. Furthermore, suitable power

management options to be able to power an RF-

communication module for data exchange or

technical control by the patient as well as an actuator

or sensor unit are proposed. As a result, the energy

consumption of the IMD potentially can be

considerably reduced.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The research on deep-tissue implants presented in this

paper has received funding from the Bavarian

Ministry of Economic Affairs, Regional

Development and Energy within the framework of the

research transfer initiative “Medical Valley Award”.

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