Role of Parental Stress on Parenting Practice in Parents of Middle

Childhood Children

Ellen Theresia

, Marissa Chitra Sulastra

and Serena Wijaya

Faculty of Psychology, Maranatha Christian University, Surya Sumantri No. 65, Bandung, Indonesia

Keywords: Parental Stress, Parenting Practice, Middle Childhood.

Abstract: Parenting at every stage of a child’s development can create happiness as well as challenges for parents. When

parents feel stressful and lack of satisfaction in parenting, parents can experience parental stress. Parental

stress plays a role in parenting practice. This study aims to determine the role of parental stress in parenting

practices. Data were collected from 134 parents who have middle-childhood children in Bandung. This study

used Alabama Parenting Questionnaire (APQ) Short-Form questionnaire to measure parenting practices and

Parental Stress Scale (PSS) to measure parental stress. The researcher validated the questionnaire using CFA

and tested the hypothesis using multiple regression analysis. The results showed significant relationship

between two variables and inter-variable. The lack of satisfaction aspect in parental stress predicts a positive

parenting and parental stress aspect predicts poor supervision. This shows that the parental stress aspect:

parental stress and lack of parental satisfaction, gives contribution to parenting practices in middle-childhood

children. This study provides a new perspective, in which the parental stress can predict poor supervision and

lack of satisfaction in parenting. Further research can be carried out by examining individual child differences

and parent’s belief as a moderator.

1 INTRODUCTION

The understanding of parenting is quite important

because the role of parents exceeds the role of other

figures around a child and has a strong and direct

influence on the welfare of the child. Warm

relationship between children and parents, good and

positive communication, consistent discipline has a

contribution for family well-being development.

Indonesia has strength, as one of the attributes in

relationships and can also be shown in the

relationship between children and parents

(Tomlinson & Andina, 2015).

The process of parenting is related to the skills of

parents as adults in their capacity to take care of their

children. In Indonesia, there are several records that

are needed in carrying out parenting practices, such

as the need to reduce the use of corporal punishment,

the attention to children's health and safety, financial

well-being, how to deal with child disobedience and

help children achieve their goals (Tomlinson &

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3110-8316

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3904-8434

https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9948-2887

Andina, 2015). Referring to various studies on

parenting in Indonesia, the issue of parenting is more

related to the poor parenting, including giving too

harsh discipline, corporal punishment, and

aggression. However, the things that need to be

considered are not only poor parenting given to

children but also the pressure faced by parents while

positive parenting practice, has not been optimally

accommodated to all parents (Kiling-Bunga,

Margiani, & Kiling, 2020).

The relationship between a child and parents can

be reflected in the parenting given by parents. Various

understandings of parenting ultimately refer to child

rearing and the behaviour of parents in terms of

providing socialization of beliefs, hopes, goals,

values, and various aspects of development in

parenting (Smith, 2011). Parent’s behaviour is very

important in the process of parenting, which is the

most influential factor in the well-being of children

and family (Kotchick & Forehand, 2002).

Theresia, E., Sulastra, M. and Wijaya, S.

Role of Parental Stress on Parenting Practice in Parents of Middle Childhood Children.

DOI: 10.5220/0010754600003112

In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Emerging Issues in Humanity Studies and Social Sciences (ICE-HUMS 2021), pages 481-488

ISBN: 978-989-758-604-0

481

The parenting practices process includes the

mechanism in the interaction between parents and

children, which is shown through direct behaviour

from parent to child, so that parenting goals can be

achieved (Darling & Steinberg, 1993). Parenting

practices are focusing on how parents behave and

their efforts on the development and growth of the

child, which in turn will determine the characteristics

of the child in the future. In addition, parenting

practices provided by parents can also be a mediator

between the development of children's achievement,

adaptation, and children's well-being (Gaspar &

Gaspar de Matos, 2017).

Parenting is a dyadic process, which involves

parents and children but on the other hand, it contains

non-relational factors that can influence parenting,

such as maternal depression (Lovejoy, Graczyk,

O’Hare, & Neuman, 2000). Parents are not the only

parties who play a role in the parenting process.

Characteristics of the child (both physical and

psychological) and their needs, the work and

marriage life of the parents and the role of the

community also play a role in the success of the

parenting process (Brooks, 2013). Characteristics of

children in relation to children’s respective stages of

development (Gorostiaga, Aliri, Balluerka, &

Lameirinhas, 2019), are related to parenting by

parents which means, parenting is related to the

different needs at each stage of child development.

So, parents need to adjust parenting practices given to

children to accommodate children's needs (Respler-

Herman, Mowder, Yasik, & Shamah, 2012). In other

words, the parenting process does not only depend on

parents or children but also depends on the interaction

between children and parents, the role of the

environment and the situation faced by the parents.

Various studies on parenting practices were

sourced from monitoring, supervision, and parental

involvement (Shelton, Frick, & Wootton, 1996) or in

terms of acceptance (involvement) and strictness

(Gorostiaga et al., 2019). The Alabama Parenting

Questionnaire which is used to measure parenting

practice refers to the dimensions: involvement with

children, positive parenting, supervision and

monitoring, corporal punishment, and consistency in

the use of discipline. This study uses the Alabama

Short Form Questionnaire with dimensions: positive

parenting, inconsistency discipline and poor

supervision (Elgar, Waschbusch, Dadds, &

Sigvaldason, 2007).

When a child enters the middle childhood stage or

better known as school age, the child experiences

various changes (Papalia, 2021). Children are more

physically active, more critical in thinking and

learning new things. Children's understanding about

their own emotions and the environment is also

growing. The environment known to the children

become even wider so that this stage provides various

opportunities and challenges. The middle childhood

development stage is also a critical point for children

to learn about competence (Angela, 2011). For

parents, the middle childhood stage becomes a stage

for children to develop their abilities. On the other

hand, in line with the development experienced by

children, parents need to change the control that is

usually carried out, by providing opportunities for

children to improve ability to make decisions so that

the role of parents is no longer controlling but instead

turning into monitoring. Sharing controls with

children or what is commonly referred to as

coregulation, become a change of role that parent can

do when the child is in the middle childhood stage

(Brooks, 2013).

The role of parenting in the ‘school age’ period is

also important as a basis for influencing the success

of the academic aspects in the future and shaping

expected behaviour (Kahraman, Yilmaz Irmak, &

Basokcu, 2017). In addition, at school age, parents are

still the main figures that children look for when they

experience difficulties. The role of parents in this

stage is not only in terms of monitoring but also in

warm interaction to provide opportunities for children

to ask for help when needed (Brooks, 2013). For this

reason, it is necessary to understand parents in dealing

with and providing care for children who are in the

middle childhood development stage, especially to

fulfil children's needs. Parents who understand the

stages of child development can provide more

optimal parenting (Belcher, Watkins, Johnson, &

Ialongo, 2007).

In fact, parenting is a process and while living it,

parents can feel various feelings in carrying out their

role as parents, both positive and negative feelings in

providing care for children (Brooks, 2013). As a

result, parents experience stress or what is better

known as parental stress. Previous studies have

focused more on the influence of parents on children,

not the opposite. Even though the role of a parent

includes various things such as giving love and

developing more intimate relationships, this role can

be tiring as well as rewarding for parents. This is the

content of the parental stress measurement. Parental

stress can affect children's behaviour at various stages

of development, from infancy to adolescence (Louie,

Cromer, & Berry, 2017)

The degree of parental stress can fluctuate

depending on the stage of child development and the

demands faced by parents (Pontoppidan, Nielsen, &

ICE-HUMS 2021 - International Conference on Emerging Issues in Humanity Studies and Social Sciences

482

Kristensen, 2018). The stress experienced by parents

can come from various factors such as factors that

come from parents (depression and anxiety), children

(such as difficult behaviour) and the environment

(poverty, social support, etc) (Smith, 2011). Parents

who have a high degree of stress can find it difficult

to recognize the basic needs of their children, which

can affect their parenting behaviour and the

subsequent development of their children. Sources of

stress can vary, in parental stress, things related to

stress conditions can come from parenting conditions

and interactions between parents and children.

Economic problems, single parenting conditions, and

parental separation also cause parental stress. Parental

stress is a condition of stress in parenting that can be

viewed from the demands and joys that are lived out

in the parenting process (Louie et al., 2017).

When parents experience parental stress, it will

affect their physical and psychological condition.

When the stress is high, it will affect how they interact

and care for their children. The more parents

experience parental stress, the more it can lead

parents to do violence and the lowering of the quality

of parent-child interactions (Neece & Green, 2014).

Parenting is a buffer system where the interaction

occurs between sources of stress and parenting

support such as psychological and social support

(Smith, 2011).

2 METHODS (AND MATERIALS)

2.1 Participants

This research was conducted using a survey given to

the parents whose children are in middle childhood.

Participant’s criteria are: (1) parents (father/mother),

(2) live in Bandung, (3) have children aged 6-11 years

old. Participants in this study were not limited to only

mothers or fathers, but both parents could participate.

Data were obtained from 134 parents with middle

childhood children, consisting of 14,5% men (father)

and 85,5% women (mother). All participants have

filled in informed consent as evidence that

participants are willing to volunteer in this research,

then fill out the questionnaires that were distributed.

2.2 Instrument

The data was collected by filling out a questionnaire

for each variable studied. This study used the Short

Form Alabama Parenting Questionnaire (APQ)

measurement tool from Elgar et al., (2007) which

researcher has translated into Bahasa Indonesia to

measure parenting practice. Another instrument used

in this study is the Parental Stress Scale (PSS) from

Berry & Jones (1995) which researcher has translated

into Bahasa Indonesia to measure parental stress. At

the beginning of the questionnaire, participants were

asked to fill some data such as name (initials), age,

gender, marital status, latest education,

socioeconomic status, current occupation, number of

children and their ages, and whether there are other

parties (besides parents) involved in parenting.

The Short Form Alabama Parenting

Questionnaire (APQ) to measure parenting practice

consists of 9 items. Participants were asked to rate

each statement based on how often it happened. Each

item in APQ consists of five answer choices: 1 =

never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = often, 5 =

always. In this measuring tool, there are three

supporting aspects, namely, positive parenting,

inconsistent discipline, and poor supervision. The

Parental Stress Scale (PSS) which measures parental

stress consists of 19 items. Participants were asked to

rate each statement based on how often the conditions

in the statement matched with the conditions when

the participants faced their children. PSS consists of

five answer choices: 1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 =

sometimes, 4 = often, 5 = always. The higher the

score obtained, the higher the parental stress

experienced by participants. There are two aspects of

parental stress, namely, demands and joy of

parenting.

2.3 Methods

For the data analysis, the statistical software SPSS 22

was used to perform descriptive statistics, correlation,

and multiple regression models. The CFA

(Confirmatory Factor Analysis) test used R program.

Multiple regression models were tested in 2 models

for each test (Table 4, 5, and 6). Model 1 is to

calculate the contribution of total parental stress to

parenting practices, positive parenting aspect (from

parenting practices) and poor supervision aspect

(from parenting practices). While model 2 is to

calculate the contribution of parental stress aspect and

lack of parental satisfaction aspect (from parental

stress) to parenting practices, positive parenting

aspect (from parenting practices) and poor

supervision aspect (from parenting practices).

2.4 Validity and Reliability

For the validity and reliability test of Short Form

Alabama Parenting Questionnaire (APQ) Short-Form

and Parental Stress Scale (PSS) CFA was used. Items

Role of Parental Stress on Parenting Practice in Parents of Middle Childhood Children

483

with factor loading above 0.3 are used in this study.

After processing the data, 5 of 9 items APQ short

form have a loading factor above 0.3. The item is

number 1,5,6,7,8. Then, 13 of 18 items PSS have a

loading factor above 0.3. The item is number 1, 3, 4,

6, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18. Based on the CFA,

it was found that the items in inconsistency discipline

aspect from the Short Form Alabama Parenting

Questionnaire (APQ) could not be used because the

loading factor was below 0.3.

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Results

Table 1: Sociodemographic data.

Variable Frequency Percent

Gender

Female

Male

Total

115

134

85.5%

14.2%

100%

Marital Status

Married

Single

Total

128

134

95.5%

1.5%

100%

Education

Less than

undergraduate

Undergraduate and

above

Total

122

132

16.4%

83.6%

100%

Social Economy Status

Above Average

Average

Below Average

Total

100

134

15.7%

74.6%

9.7%

100%

Job Status

Employment

Unem

ment

133

99.3%

0.7%

Number of Children

1-2

≥3

Total

106

134

79.1%

20.9%

100%

Social Support in Children

Have social support

Lacks social support

Total

134

35.1%

64.9%

100%

Table 1 shows 85,5% women (mothers) participated

in this study with 95,5% marital status is married.

Most (83,6%) respondents are undergraduate and

above, indicating respondents with higher level of

education. Respondents with average social economy

status was 74.6%. There were 99.3% respondents in

this study who are employee. Respondents who have

1-2 children was 79.1%. Meanwhile, 64.9% of

parents lacks social support in childcare.

Table 2: Descriptive statistic of parental stress and

parenting practices.

Variable N Mean SD Min Max

Parental

Stress

134 27.10 7.136 13 46

Parental

Stress

134 22.66 6.264 10 38

Lack of

Parental

Satisfaction

134 4.45 1.505 3 9

Parenting

Practice

134 15.69 1.967 11 22

Positive

Parenting

134 13.45 1.788 9 15

Poor

Supervision

134 2.25 0.817 2 8

Parental

Stress

134 27.10 7.136 13 46

Table 2 represents means and SD of independent

and dependent variable including parental stress

(mean = 27,10; SD = 7,136) and parenting practices

(mean = 15,69; SD = 1,967). Based on descriptive

statistics, it can be found that respondents who

experience the lack of parental satisfaction aspect

(from parental stress) are lower compared to parental

stress aspect (from parental stress) (mean = 4.45; SD

= 1.505). It means that respondents feel that they are

satisfied with the experience of parenting their

middle-childhood children. It is also found that the

poor supervision aspect (from parenting practices)

has a lower score than positive parenting aspect (from

parenting practices) (mean = 2,25; SD = 0,817). It

means respondents feel that they do not supervise

their middle-childhood children in a bad way.

ICE-HUMS 2021 - International Conference on Emerging Issues in Humanity Studies and Social Sciences

484

Table 3: Intercorrelation among parental stress, parenting practices and sociodemographic data.

Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Parental

Stress

1 .864*** .580*** -.190** .-.271** 0.47 -.059 -.134 .234** .156 .098 -.012 -.104

Parental

Stress

1 .445*** -.508 -.128 .066 -.084 -.115 .219** .150 .102 -.026 -.075

Lack of

Parental

Satisfaction

1 -274** -.369*** -.064 -.126 -.067 .079 .078 -.082 -.166 -.122

Parenting

Practices

1 .768*** .117 .189 .048 .103 .189* .093 .112 .180 **

Positive

arenting

1 -.015 -.083 .067 .121 .152 .075 .108 .158*

Poor

Supervision

1 .154* -.239** .095 .148 -.034 .228** .060

Gender

1 .007 .225** .088 .213** .317*** -.060

Education

1 .218** .096 .038 -.119 -.072

SES

1 .232 .256** .149 .073

Marital Status

1 .019 .125 .053

Employment

1 -.045 -.118

Number of

children

1 .185**

Social support

in childcare

*p<0.10; **p<0.05; ***p<0.001

Table 4: Parental stress predicting parenting practice.

Unstandardized Coeffecients Standardized Coeffecients

B Std.Error Beta t Sig.

Model 1

Parental Stress -.034 .024 -.125 -1.444 .151

Model 2

Parental Stress .047 .029 .148 1.578 .117

Lack of Parental

Satisfaction

-.544 .123 -.416 -4.431 .000**

R2 = 0.016 for Model 1; R2 = 0.133 for Model 2. *p<0.10; *p<0.05; **p<0.001

Table 5: Parental stress predicting poor supervision.

Unstandardized Coeffecients Standardized Coeffecients

B Std.Error Beta t Sig.

Model 1

Parental Stress .011 .010 .094 1.079 .282

Model 2

Parental Stress .027 .013 .207 2.091 .038*

Lack of Parental

Satisfaction

-.092 .054 -.169 -1.710 .090

R2 = 0.009 for Model 1; R2 = 0.036 for Model 2. *p<0.10; *p<0.05; **p<0.001

Role of Parental Stress on Parenting Practice in Parents of Middle Childhood Children

485

Table 6: Parental stress predicting positive parenting.

Unstandardized Coeffecients Standardized Coeffecients

B Std.Error Beta t Sig.

Model 1

Parental Stress -.045 .021 -.180 -2.101 .038*

Model 2

Parental Stress .020 .027 .068 .723 .471

Lack of Parental

Satisfaction

-.452 .112 -.380 -4.027 .000**

= 0.32 for Model 1; R

= 0.123 for Model 2. *p<0.10; *p<0.05; **p<0.001

To test relationship between parental stress,

parenting practices and sociodemographic, Chi-

Square test is used to analyse each criterion (Table.

3). There was significant relation between parental

stress and parenting practices (r =4.832; p = 0,028).

Parental stress and positive parenting aspect (from

parenting practices) also have a significant relation (r

= 9.820; p = 0,002). There is a significant relation

between lack of parental satisfaction aspect (from

parental stress) and parenting practices (r = 10.087; p

= 0,001).

Table 4, 5 and 6 are the analyses that is conducted

to examine whether parental stress predicted

parenting practices. The first set of regressions in

table 4 examined whether parental stress predicted

parenting practices. It showed that neither parental

stress (β = -0,034; p = 0,151) nor aspect parental

stress (from parental stress) predicted parenting

practices (β = -0,034; p = 0,151). But lack of parental

satisfaction aspect (from parental stress) predicted

parenting practices (β = -0,544; p = 0,000).

The second set of regression in table 5 examined

whether parental stress predicted poor supervision

aspect (from parenting practices). It showed that

neither parental stress (β = 0,011; p= 0,282) nor lack

of satisfaction aspect (from parental stress) (β = -

0,092; p = 0,09) predicted poor supervision aspect

(from parenting practices). However, parental stress

aspect (from parental stress) predicted poor

supervision (β = 0,027; p = 0,038).

The third set of regression in table 6 which

examined whether parental stress predicted positive

parenting aspect (from parenting practices). It showed

that parental stress aspect (from parental stress) did

not predict positive parenting aspect (from parenting

practices) (β = 0,020; p = 0,471). However, parental

stress (β = -0,045; p = 0,038) and lack of parental

satisfaction (from parental stress) predicted positive

parenting aspect (from parenting practices)

(β = -0,452; p = 0,000).

4 DISCUSSION

The purpose of this study was to determine the role of

parental stress on parenting practices among parents

with children in the middle childhood age. Table 3

presents a significant relation between two variables

and inter-variable aspect. Based on this study we

found that the two variables tend to be less varied

(Mean and SD, see table 1).

Parental stress is a stressful condition experienced

by parents in raising children. Parental stress can be

viewed from demand and joy in parenting (Louie et al.,

2017). Based on the table. 6, parental stress predicts the

positive parenting aspect (from parenting practices).

For each 1-unit increase in the parental stress, the

positive parenting will decrease by .045 units. The

more parents perceive that parenting is something

demanding rather than something fun, the less positive

parenting will be. When parents experience parental

stress, they might find difficulties to give rewards to

children even though children behave positively and

deserve rewards. Parents with high levels of stress are

less responsive and affectionate to their children

(McQuillan & Bates, 2017). Meanwhile, positive

parenting is parenting accompanied by affection,

which includes giving appreciation and affection to the

children, praising the children, playing with the

children, talking with them, and having emotional

closeness with them (Elgar et al., 2007). So, it will be

difficult for parents who experience parental stress to

do positive parenting to their children.

Two constructs of parental stress can also be

interpreted separately, namely the constructs of

parental stress and lack of parental satisfaction. Table.

4 presents a significant prediction from lack of

parental satisfaction aspect (from parental stress) to

parenting practice. For each 1-unit increase in the lack

of parental satisfaction, the parenting practices will

decrease by 0,544 units. It means that the higher lack

of satisfaction in parenting felt by parents, the lower

ICE-HUMS 2021 - International Conference on Emerging Issues in Humanity Studies and Social Sciences

486

parenting practices performed by parents on their

children. Lack of parental satisfaction means that

parents find that parenting is something that

unbearable for them. They do not feel happy with

their role as a parent, they do not feel any closeness

with their children, they are not satisfied with their

role as a parent, and they do not find their children as

the source of affection or enjoyment for them(Berry

& Jones, 1995). Meanwhile, parenting practices is

focusing on how parents behave and attempt to do

parenting as good as possible to help their children

develop and grow optimally (Gaspar & Gaspar de

Matos, 2017). No wonder when parents have a high

level of lack of parental satisfaction, it is difficult for

them to do a good parenting practice because they do

not find parenting as something enjoyable for them.

Lack of parental satisfaction consists of the

rewards of parenting such as fulfilment and personal

growth. For this reason, a high lack of parental

satisfaction can predict positive parenting. In positive

parenting, parents can reward children when children

behave positively. It is shown by the results in table.

5. For each 1-unit increase in the lack of parental

satisfaction, the positive parenting will decrease by

0,452 units. It is not easy to do parenting for middle-

childhood children. The children are in the transition

from being a child to an adolescence. So, conflicts can

occur because of the adaptation of parents to the new

parental role when facing their middle-childhood

children and their struggles to negotiate the

developmental tasks of their children. Conflicts and

difficulties that occur can cause parents to perceive

parenting as something unpleasant (Krapić, Hudek-

Knežević, & Kardum, 2015) When parenting is

experienced as something unpleasant, parents will

also find it difficult to implement positive parenting

which is characterized by love, affection, and warm

relationships in it.

Along with this result, parental stress aspect (from

parental stress) predicts poor supervision aspect

(from parenting practice). Demand in parenting is a

condition that is considered by parents as some kind

of pressure in parenting such as the condition of

children, life stressors experienced by parents,

economic problems and so on (Berry & Jones, 1995).

A high parental stress score indicates that parents

perceive high demands in parenting. Perceptions of

demands predict the monitoring done by parents to

their children. For each 1-unit increase in the parental

stress, the poor supervision will increase by 0,027

units (see table. 6). It means that the higher the

parental stress intensity felt by parents, the higher the

poor supervision practices performed by parents on

their children.

5 CONCLUSIONS

This study presents that parental stress predicts

parenting practice in the aspects of poor supervision

and positive parenting. Based on the result, when

people perceive the situation of parenting or their role

as a parent as stressful, it can lead parents to specific

behaviour. The results of this study also show that

there is no relationship between parental practice or

parental stress with the respondent's demographic

data.

In parenting process, it is normal for parents to

experience various experiences, either stressful

experiences or joyful experiences. The parenting

process is a process that is both taxing and rewarding

for parents and can make parents experience parental

stress. One of the things that can increase parental

stress is a child individuality. Children who have

difficult temperaments set parents in challenging

situations and can have high parental stress. In this

study, data regarding individual child differences that

can show information about children's behaviour that

can make parents in a state of high parental stress, has

not been obtained. Therefore, further research can add

data regarding individual child differences (Louie et

al., 2017).

Parental practices cover parental behaviour that is

generally related to parental beliefs. Parents'

perceptions are shaped by experiences during the time

as a child or as a parent. Parenting beliefs that direct

parenting practice are determined by various factors.

One of them is parental stress (Respler-Herman et al.,

2012). In further research, research can be carried out

in relation to the belief variable which can be a

moderator between the variables of parental stress

and parenting practice.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Our thanks go to Hianly Muljadi, S. S., M. Hum. who

helped in the process of editing the research

questionnaires.

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