Mobility for Long-distance: How People Choose Transportation in

the Covid-19 Pandemic Era?

Priska G. Nahak

, Theodorus Paling

and Anastasia H. Muda

Department of Civil Engineering, State Polytechnic of Kupang, Adisucipto Street, Kupang, Indonesia

Keywords: Mobility, Long-distance, Mode Choice, Covid-19 Pandemic, Best-worst Method.

Abstract: Transportation during the pandemic era is experiencing tremendous pressure, as although it causes the spread

of the virus, restrictions on mobility worsen its operation. Therefore, this study aims to explain a model of

mobility behavior on medium and long-distance trips in an archipelago based on the choice of transportation

mode. The data was from cases in the western Timor island, focused on traveling from Kupang to various

district cities. Data was collected using a questionnaire with a sample of 250 respondents, randomly selected

in the Kupang area. The modes of transportation included were buses, cars, motorbikes, minibuses, and car

sharing. Meanwhile, the analysis used the best-worst method (BWM) approach by comparing one mode,

labeled as the best, with another, expressed as the worst, according to each respondent's perception, to describe

the mode selection behavior before and during the pandemic. Based on the calculation algorithm in the BWM,

the output of the analysis was the weight of each mode of transportation for each respondent. The final weight

was based on the average weight estimated from the overall respondents and used to determine the ranking

of each mode of transportation. Subsequently, the results showed that buses were the best mode of

transportation, followed by cars, then car sharing, minibuses, and finally, motorbikes, which were rarely used.

During the pandemic, the best or most frequently used mode of transportation was car sharing, followed by

minibuses, cars, motorbikes, and buses as the last alternative in the ranking. This finding shows that long-

distance travellers are more prone to the spread of Covid-19 virus. Therefore, clear regulations are needed

regarding car sharing operations to ensure the provision of excellent services. Also, the improvement of

intercity bus services is important, especially in terms of capacity management, cleanliness, and the

application of health protocols during trips.

1 INTRODUCTION

Transportation, which has become a vital part of

human life, became one of the causes of the massive

viral spread during the pandemic. A study conducted

by Iacus et al. (2020) showed transportation

accounted for approximately 92% of the virus spread

at the beginning of the pandemic and decreased after

mobility was controlled. At the same time, many

transportation operators have suffered losses due to

the decline in travel within and between cities

(Tirachini and Cats, 2020). The identification result

by Labonté-Lemoyne et al. (2020) showed the

widespread shifting of people from public to private

vehicles on their daily commute. This was supported

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2584-5045

https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5656-9034

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2136-7616

by other findings in the United States that there was a

dynamic shift in travel behavior with people's

perception of the Covid-19 impact (Truong and

Truong, 2021). In addition, mobility within

Shenzhen, China, has decreased by 20-60%, causing

a delay in the growth of the virus spread (Zhou et al.,

2020).

Population diversity, mobility patterns, and

spatial factors affect the time needed to overcome a

pandemic. A study by Merler and Ajelli (2010)

showed that the diversity of mobility with varying

levels of activity provides different levels of disease

spread, causing closures and activity restrictions to be

more effective control measures. However, these

activity restrictions impact changing travel behavior.

194

Nahak, P., Paling, T. and Muda, A.

Mobility for Long-distance: How People Choose Transportation in the Covid-19 Pandemic Era?.

DOI: 10.5220/0010942200003260

In Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Applied Science and Technology on Engineering Science (iCAST-ES 2021), pages 194-202

ISBN: 978-989-758-615-6; ISSN: 2975-8246

 2023 by SCITEPRESS – Science and Technology Publications, Lda. Under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

(Przybylowski et al., 2021) found that the majority of

people surveyed reduced their use of public

transportation and would reuse it, providing Covid 19

is more controlled. The study conducted by (Chang et

al., 2021) showed that people with high travel

activities were more susceptible to the virus

transmission, where most of them were lower-

middle-income people who cannot freely decide to

reduce mobility. In addition, Chen et al.'s (2020)

analysis results showed a positive correlation of travel

restrictions with the spread of disease at the beginning

of the pandemic, where higher restrictions led to

reduced viral spread. The study analyzed two main

strategies, namely without and with intervention on

public transportation, where the first strategy allowed

the maximum number of Covid-19 infected cases and

the second reduced it.

According to Shen et al. (2020) long-term

effective prevention and control measures need to be

adopted by public transportation. Since the risk of

infection in humans can be very high while traveling

by public transportation, precautions such as

strengthening management personnel, personal

protection, environmental cleaning and disinfection,

health, and education need to be taken seriously. The

study by Ozbilen et al. (2021) also showed, on

average, the people who used public transportation,

ride-hailing, and car sharing were more at risk of

contracting Covid-19 than those that walked or used

cars. Therefore, building on the emerging positive

perception of non-motorized modes as an opportunity

to promote sustainable transportation and formulating

viable solutions to address the high-risk perceptions

related to public transportation use are recommended.

Furthermore, a study by Khaddar and Fatmi

(2021) showed that the involvement of daily

activities such as shopping, recreational activities,

household affairs, and socio-demographic attributes

had a significant effect on travel satisfaction during

the pandemic. Meanwhile, the results of this analysis

indicated that transportation modes like bicycles or

walking were used more often because they were

more satisfying in this era. A study conducted by

Anwari et al. (2021) in Bangladesh showed that the

majority of trips still use buses, especially to markets,

for recreation, and short distance trips, though the use

of this mode for village trips is decreasing.

However, this pandemic may last long because

transmission is still occurring and could impact

mobility (Moslem et al., 2020). Although not in all

areas, population mobility is dynamic because one

tends to have many choices, either travel or stay at

home. In Indonesia, with various regional

characteristics and uneven transportation systems in

all regions, mobility is a need because of economic

and social demands. Mogaji (2020) stated that

limiting the mobility of people in developing

countries will be very difficult due to economic

demands during the pandemic. Therefore, studying

the behavior of people's mobility during this time is

necessary.

A study was also conducted by the Research and

Development Agency of the Transportation Ministry

in collaboration with the Bandung Institute of

Technology concerning this issue. According to this

study, there was a significant decrease in the mobility

of people between and within cities in Indonesia

during the social restrictions (Frazila et al., 2020)

which impacted the changes in travel behavior. In

Jakarta, the congestion index has dropped

significantly since social restrictions, causing the city

to be excluded from the 2020 list of the top 10 most

congested cities in the world (Tomtom, 2021).

However, mobility will increases again as the new

normal begins (Frazila et al., 2020), though the

implementation of health protocols is still mandatory.

Within this framework, regulators need to take

strategic and anticipatory steps to realize safe and

comfortable transportation (Przybylowski et al.,

2021).

Furthermore, Ramos et al. (2020) analyzed

mobility to reveal that the style is determined by

socio-demographic aspects of the environment,

political orientation, vehicle ownership, and

transportation mode use. The choice of mobility style

will influence future policies of urban development

that ensure environmental sustainability. Similarly,

the household aspect plays an important role in

mobility in China, especially because of policies that

encourage people to bring the workplace closer to

home (Yao and Wang, 2018). According to Litman

(2003), mobility-based measurement can be

approached through the distance traveled by each

person, while accessibility is measured through the

ability of people to travel, including the costs,

available facilities, and infrastructure involved. Ali et

al. (2021), also stated that besides the mobility aspect,

considering the accessibility to achieving a

comfortable and safe journey is important in the

analysis of transportation planning.

The studies above have clearly explained the

effect of mobility on the Covid-19 spread and vice

versa. Public transportation is under tremendous

pressure due to various restrictions, and most studies

on mobility during the pandemic have focused on

urban areas. However, studies to understand the

behavior towards medium and long-distance travel,

Mobility for Long-distance: How People Choose Transportation in the Covid-19 Pandemic Era?

195

which also seems to be one of the causes of Covid-19

spread, are still rare.

Therefore, this study focuses on discussing the

behavior towards choosing a mode of transportation

for medium and long-distance trips in terms of

perceptions of the best and worst choices from some

alternatives. This means one mode is considered the

best, and some are regarded as the worst. The analysis

of options with this approach can provide additional

understanding of the mobility model in terms of the

choice of transportation mode during the pandemic.

2 METHOD

This study's purpose was to describe a model of

mobility behavior based on the choice of

transportation mode for medium and long-distance

travel via a road trip using a motorized vehicle. Inter-

regional mobility data within the Timor Island and the

Kupang origin area with the destination areas

comprising South Central Timor (SCT), North

Central Timor (NCT), Belu, and Malaka districts

were used. Travel to SCT was categorized as medium

distance, while to NCT, Belu, and Malaka were long

distance.

The data was obtained from a disaggregated

survey using a questionnaire distributed to

respondents, and the simple random sampling

technique was used to ensure the 250 people

evaluated were selected randomly.

Meanwhile, the questionnaire was related to the

use of these transportation modes on out-of-town trips

before and during the pandemic. They also concerned

the preferences for mode selection for out-of-town

travel for those who never went outside the city

during the pandemic. The questionnaire comprised

the following questions:

A. Before the Pandemic

1. Have you ever traveled outside Kupang City

before the pandemic?

2. Where was the longest trip outside Kupang before

the pandemic in the Timor region?

3. Please rate the following modes of transportation

between 1 – 9 to travel outside Kupang before the

pandemic, where 1 indicates 'rarely used' and 9 is

the 'most often used.'

B. During the Pandemic

1. Have you ever traveled outside Kupang during the

pandemic?

2. Where was the farthest trip outside Kupang during

the pandemic within the Timor region?

3. Please rate the following modes of transportation

to travel outside Kupang during the pandemic

between 1 – 9, where 1 indicates 'rarely used' and

9 is the 'most frequently used.'

4. For those who have never traveled outside

Kupang.

Rate the following modes of transportation

between 1 – 9 for traveling outside Kupang to SCT,

NCT, Belu, or Malacca, where 1 indicates 'rarely to

be used,' and 9 is the 'most likely to be used,' during

the pandemic to travel outside Kupang.

The choice of transportation assumed to be the

best and worst choice was the rarely used mode, using

a measurement scale 1 – 9, where 1 states the worst

choice and 9 represents the best. Based on the

research objectives, the method employed was the

best-worst method (BWM) developed by Rezaei

(2020) and is used for multi-criteria analysis, though

its use for transportation studies is still minimal.

Meski demikian, BWM telah digunakan untuk studi

dibidang logistik. However, BWM has been used in

studies related to logistics transportation. The method

can also be used to compare and consider various

conflicting criteria in order to determine criteria with

the most and the least significant influence (Moeslem

et al., 2020; Salimi & Rezaei, 2016). Rezaei, 2015

found that BWM had better performance than the

analytical hierarchy process (AHP) for multi-criteria

analysis. AHP analysis was based on the comparison

between criteria, while BWM went directly to the best

option and the worst one. Meanwhile, a study

conducted by Moslem et al. (2020) on inner-city

travel showed that it can adequately explain the

choice of mobility in the city, hence some parts of the

Moslem research method were used. However, the

focus was on medium and long-distance travel, and a

stated preference (SP) analysis was added to the

discussion. This study described the preferences of

people who have never traveled outside the city

during the pandemic.

The stages in data analysis are as follows (Rezaei,

2020):

1. Identify criteria (C) for selecting the type of

mobility.

2. Define the best and worst alternative options

using a scale of 1 – 9, where 1 indicates the 'least

important,' and 9 represents the 'most important.'

3. Evaluate pairwise comparisons for the most

important alternative (best)

𝐶

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4. Evaluate pairwise comparisons for the least

important alternative (worst)

5. Optimal weight analysis of the most important

criteria choice for mobility based on the mode

used.

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)

iCAST-ES 2021 - International Conference on Applied Science and Technology on Engineering Science

196

Absolute maximum difference:

𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥





𝑊



𝑊



−𝐶



,

𝑊



𝑊



−𝐶



,

∑

𝑊



=1,𝑊



≥0

..





The principle of linear programming was used to

solve the problem above:

𝑚𝑖𝑛𝜉

∗

𝑠.𝑡









−𝐶



≤ 𝜉

∗

∑

𝑊



=1,𝑊



≥0



 (2)

3 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Geographically, the pattern of land travel from

Kupang to several district cities in the Timor territory

is through one main access called Trans Timor.

Figure 1 shows that the main intersection for access

to several district cities, namely Soe, Kefamenanu,

and Atambua, will be seen after passing through the

Kupang district and entering the SCT (Soe) area.

Besides being the provincial capital and the center of

trade and education, Kupang is also a transit city for

people who travel between islands or countries.

Therefore, it is a tourist attraction and a travel

generator.

Figure 1: Map of Timor Islands (Wikipedia, n.d.).

Transportation between regions within Timor

Island mostly uses road transportation for passengers

and logistics. Air transportation services are only

available on the Kupang – Atambua route. Several

public transportation modes that operate are intercity

buses, minibuses, and car sharing, with capacities of

22, 9, and 7 passengers, respectively. Most buses and

minibuses serve the Kupang to Soe, Kefamenanu,

Atambua, and Betun routes. Meanwhile, car sharing

mostly serves the Kupang to Soe and Malaka routes

and has grown rapidly after road access to several

district cities has increased significantly.

The survey data in Table 1 shows the majority of

the farthest travel destination for respondents before

the pandemic was Soe, and the nearest was

Kefamenanu. Generally, the number of respondents

who traveled the furthest to Malaka and Belu was not

much different from before the pandemic. The

distance to Soe, Kefamenanu, Atambua, Malaka is

approximately 110 Km, Kefamenanu 200 Km, 280

Km, and 255 Km, respectively. Meanwhile, the

reason respondents traveled out of town most often

was for family matters, while the least was tourism

and so on.

Table 1: Responden characteristics.

Res

ondent characteristics Pro

ortion

1. < 20 Yea

22%

2. 20

–

30 Yea

31%

3. 30 - 40 Yea

33%

4. 40 - 50 Yea

5. > 50 Yea

Profession

1. PNS/TNI/POLRI 22%

2. Entrepreneu

30%

3. Student 17%

4. Others

31%

Income

1. < IDR 1 million 45%

2. > IDR 1 million – IDR 2.5

million 11%

3. > IDR 2.5 million

–

5 million 23%

4. > IDR 5 million

–

7.5 million 17%

5. > IDR 7.5 million 4%

The furthest trip out of town before the pandemic

1. Soe 34%

2. Kefamenanu 8%

3. Atambua 30%

4. Malaka 28%

Reasons to travel before the pandemic

1. Wor

14%

2. Back to hometown 31%

3. Famil

Affairs 44%

4. Tou

5. Others 5%

The furthest trip out of town during the pandemic

1. Soe 29%

2. Kefamenanu 11%

3. Atambua 22%

4. Malaka 17%

5. Never

et 21%

Reasons to travel during a pandemic

1. Wor

11%

2. Back to hometown 36%

3. Famil

Affairs 30%

4. Tou

5. Others 21%

Mobility for Long-distance: How People Choose Transportation in the Covid-19 Pandemic Era?

197

However, there was a change in the percentage of

destination areas during the pandemic, as respondents

who traveled to Soe City were more dominant, though

the percentage was smaller than before Covid-19.

About 21% of the respondents did not travel outside

the city during the pandemic, while the reason for

travel was majorly for family matters and return to

hometown.

The respondent's choice of transportation mode

before and during the pandemic changed based on the

assessment of the available modes, namely buses,

cars, motorcycles, minibuses, and car sharing.

Respondents gave an assessment of 1 to state the most

frequently used and 9 to state the rarely used. Table 2

shows the analysis of their responses using a matrix

comparison where the best and worst modes were

compared to other transportation choices. From this

comparison, the consistency of the respondents'

answers < 0.1 was considered eligible.

The following is an example of analysis for one

respondent.

In the analysis example, the best choice was a bus,

and the worst was a motorcycle. The results in Table

2, which are the output of the analysis based on the

algorithm developed by Rezazai, showed that the

consistency value (Ksi) was 0.07 < 0.1, meaning the

respondent's answer met the requirements.

Table 2: Pairwise Comparisons between the Modes of Transportation.

Criteria Number = 5 Criterion 1 Criterion 2 Criterion 3 Criterion 4 Criterion 5

Names of Criteria Bus Ca

Motorc

cle Minibus Car Sharin

Select the Best Bus

Select the Worst Motorcycle

Best to Others Bus Ca

Motorcycle Minibus Car Sharing

Bus 1 5 8 5 2

Worst to Others Motorc

cle

Bus 8

Motorcycle 1

Minibus 2

Car Sharin

Weights

Bus Ca

Motorc

cle Minibus Car Sharin

0.46568627

0.1078431

4 0.0490196 0.1078431 0.2696078

Ksi* 0.07352941

Figure 2: Average Weight of the Mode of Transportation used before the Pandemic from one respondent.

iCAST-ES 2021 - International Conference on Applied Science and Technology on Engineering Science

198

Consequently, the weighted output in Table 2

shows the ranking level of each transportation mode.

Figure 2 shows that the 1st rank was the mode of

transportation with the largest weights, while the 5th

rank had the smallest, meaning buses are the main

choice and motorbikes are the most frequently used

option.

All the respondents' answers before and after the

pandemic were analyzed, including the mode

selection preferences for those who will travel out of

town during the pandemic. After the analysis, the next

step was to determine the total weight, which was the

average of the overall value for each mode of

transportation. Figure 3 shows the bus weights were

more, making them the best choice or the top rank,

while the motorbikes were the least, thereby

becoming the worst choice or lowest ranking.

Conversely, cars were placed 2nd place, while

minibuses and car sharing were balanced in weight.

During the pandemic, the mode of transportaion

for mobility outside Kupang city to several areas in

Timor showed a change. Figure 4 illustrates the

change during the pandemic, where buses were no

longer a priority choice. Car sharing was the best

choice for traveling outside this city, followed by

minibus, while the car weights were slightly above

the motorbike, and the lowest was the bus.

Finally, an analysis of the mobility choices of the

respondents who had never been out of town during

the pandemic was conducted. Figure 5 shows the best

choice to travel outside the city is car sharing,

followed by the car, minibus, and motorbike, while

the last option is the bus.

This study found that there was a change in

choosing transportation modes before and during the

pandemic. Although the high use of buses before the

pandemic could be due to the affordable fares and

adequate availability, the users and operators tended

Figure 3: Average Final Weight of the Mode of Transportation used before the Pandemic.

Figure 4: Average Final Weight of Transportation Modes used during the Pandemic.

Mobility for Long-distance: How People Choose Transportation in the Covid-19 Pandemic Era?

199

Figure 5: Average Final Weight of the Transportation Modes used when Traveling Out of Town during the Pandemic.

to ignore or neglect the demands for health care

standards. According to the study by Moslem et al.

(2020) involving short distances, many people

switched to walking and using cars during the

pandemic even though car use before Covid-19 was

quite high. In another study, (Burgdorf, Mönch, &

Beige, 2020) found that most long-distance trips were

on the road using buses, then trains, and rarely planes.

According to the results, the use of car sharing

during the pandemic was higher than buses. Likewise,

the mode most often used was car sharing for those

who had never been out of town. Car sharing is a

relatively new transportation service for long-

distance travel in Timor, whose use is growing due to

poor bus services, such as lateness and longer trips

due to frequent stops. It is also a solution to overcome

the use of private vehicles, according to Hui et al.

(2019). Ferrero et al. (2018) stated that the main

principle of car sharing was using private vehicles

together with other persons going to the same

destination, associated with door-to-door service.

This method provides convenience for users.

However, Chapman et al. (2020) found that this

service on inner-city trips is attractive to those who

have cars, though they cannot be sure that the

transportation mode can reduce car use.

Meanwhile, the problem faced was that the

inability to properly control the growth of car sharing

creates unfair competition between its existence and

bus operations at the local level. The first obstacle is

that the absence of clear local regulations regarding

car sharing operations. Second, there is no travel

insurance guarantee that can cope with accidents

because the vehicle-operating license is for personal

use, not public transportation. Therefore, the first step

is to make clear car sharing regulations concerning

ownership, operations, and routes to ensure healthy

competition with other public transportation modes.

The application of these regulations can be similar to

the minibus, which has a capacity of 9 passengers.

Furthermore, an equally important factor is the

need for efforts to improve intercity bus services,

especially regulating passenger capacity, cleanliness,

and adherence to health protocols.

4 CONCLUSIONS

This study produced an overview of the mode choice

behavior before and after the pandemic, and the

results showed a change in the pattern of mobility

concerning the choice of transportation mode. This

finding shows the vulnerability of long-distance

travellers to the spread of Covid-19 virus. These

travellers are recommended to choose transportation

modes with the lowest risk of transmission. Car

sharing is more often used to travel long distances

within the Timor region, while minibuses, with a 9-

passenger capacity, were in second place. Although

car sharing and minibuses are still categorized as

public transportation, they are not for mass

transportation. These results indicate that buses were

used the least for inter-city travel during the

pandemic, and this finding necessitates the attention

of policymakers to improve the performance and use

of bus services. Furthermore, passenger capacity can

be concluded to be a factor that can influence the

choice of public transportation modes for mobility.

Therefore, passenger capacity and its

relationship to public transportation use during the

pandemic, including the improvement of intercity bus

services, can be studied in the future.

iCAST-ES 2021 - International Conference on Applied Science and Technology on Engineering Science

200

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors express gratitude to the State Polytechnic

of Kupang for the funding provided to complete this

research.

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