Social Media, Political Identities, and Religiosity in Urban Society
A. Bakir Ihsan, Cucu Nurhayati and Muhammad Aqshadigrama
Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta, Indonesia
Keywords: Political Identities, Social Media, Religious Understanding, Urban Society.
Abstract: Along with the development of information technology, people's religious understanding is widely sourced
from social media. Especially during the Covid-19 pandemic, the increasing intensity of social media access,
allowing influence on the religious community in the midst of diversity of citizens both religiously, ethnically,
and culturally increasingly find patterns and massive. One of the impacts is the strengthening of religious
identity politics as a result of the strengthening of exclusive and integralist (conservative) religious
understanding on the one hand and the pull of pragmatic political interests on the other. This article captures
the influence of social media on the establishment of the urban’s religious understanding and its impact on
religious political identity.
1 INTRODUCTION
As information technology grows massively and the
popularity of some social networking sites, the spread
of Islamic teachings through social media is also
increasing. Indonesian people’s access to social
media has increased over time, especially during the
Covid19 pandemic that forces interaction through
social media. Out of a total of 274.9 million people in
Indonesia, its active social media users reached 170
million. This equates to 61.8 percent of the total
population by January 2021. This figure also
increased by 10 million, or about 6.3 percent
compared to January 2020.
Table 1: Most-Used Social Media Platforms in Indonesia.
Social Media %
Youtube 93,8
Whatsapp 87,7
Insta
g
ra
m
86,6
Faceboo
k
85,5
Twitte
r
63,6
Social media is a fairly effective means utilized by
a variety of interests, ranging from economic,
political, cultural, and others, including the spread of
religion or so-called cyber-religion. In the millennial
era, the spread of Islam (da’wah) can be done through
social media. It surpasses ta’lim assembly buildings,
mosques, musala, boarding schools, and other
conventional places of Islamic study. A lot of
religious information through social media has given
birth to a new elite of religion, namely “ustadz social
media (socmed)” which at the same time poses a
threat to the authority of teachers, Kiai, or clerics who
have been struggling directly with people’s lives in
each region. Ustadz social media has a wider study
space and exceeds the demographic boundaries of the
worshipers he fosters. Therefore, ustadz social media
is better known and more popular than Kiai or
teachers who do not appear on social media, thus
encouraging the presence of more followers or
worshipers in cyberspace with a variety of
understandings and identities.
The people of the city (urban society) are the
biggest social media viewers. City people can be
verbally meaningful as citizens living in the city, it
can also be a social category that refers to economic
status, education, and more advanced rationality.
Economically and education of the city community is
above average and seen from infrastructure, the city
becomes the center of information technology
development with a variety of variants, including
social media, making it more accessible.
Accessibility is easy and simple, making the city
community easier to connect with social media,
especially in the era of the Covid-19 pandemic that
requires a reduction in the intensity of encounters and
physical interactions. Although the city community is
more superior to the villagers and therefore more
rational, but at some point, they are more
conservative. This can be seen from the tendency of
conservatism and religious understanding of the city
24
Ihsan, A., Nurhayati, C. and Aqshadigrama, M.
Social Media, Political Identities, and Religiosity in Urban Society.
DOI: 10.5220/0011240100003376
In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Recent Innovations (ICRI 2021), pages 24-30
ISBN: 978-989-758-602-6
Copyright
c
2022 by SCITEPRESS Science and Technology Publications, Lda. All rights reserved
that is more rational and has a higher average
education than the villagers. Therefore, the tendency
to strengthen religious identity politics among the city
community becomes interesting to see by measuring
the intensity and accessibility of religious social
media and the religious patterns it obtains.
2 SOCIAL MEDIA, RELIGION,
AND POLITICAL IDENTITIES
The popularity of someone ustadz on social media is
directly proportional to the netizen’s belief in ustadz
socmed, while Kiai or speakers who have high
knowledge but do not appear on social media are not
known to the public so they have minimal followers.
Social media is the same as the science of knowledge
depends on the way society in addressing and using it
in the digital age. Social media can provide
information quickly, but the public must be good at
understanding, selecting, and filtering information
that provides benefits of not receiving it unanimously
and completely. Adam et al. (Adam et al., 2015)
explained that social media is used as a medium of
da’wah by various religions such as Judaism,
Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam.
Today’s mass media has become the “largest
distillation” for religious preaching, and this space
has been used as a means of spreading religion and
communication between peoples, especially by
western societies. Malik and Chairani (?), explained
that there are two most popular social networking
sites used as a medium of spreading Islam. The first
is Facebook; it is often used as a medium of
preaching, for example by creating a group, one of the
most popular discussion groups “Learning Islam.”
The group provides fairly rich information about
Islam from several competent sources. Lin and Utz
(Lin and Utz, 2015) in their study of the effect of
Facebook social media use on emotions, as quoted by
mentioned that Facebook users have more positive
feelings when reading positive status but if it is too
strong it will have an impact on feelings of sadness
and sudden depression.
In the case of Indonesia, the uploaded religious
material is sometimes associated with political
competition motives aimed at degrading the
opponent’s popularity. During national and local
elections, Quranic verses are adapted and used to win
that have an impact on the sealing of society wrapped
in religious emotions. That fact is a logical
consequence of the availability of social media that
tends to be uncontrolled. Islamic material on social
media has a positive and negative impact that
intertwines like two sides of a currency. On the one
hand, the number of religious sites makes it easier for
people to learn Islamic teachings that are adapted to
their time without having to come directly to the
learning forum. However, on the other hand, “instant”
religious understanding often gives birth to instant
understanding without comprehensive references
resulting in a narrow and exclusive understanding. In
its extreme form, such understanding gives birth to
anarchism, hate speech increasingly until widespread
of fake news without examining the main sources that
have legitimacy authority.
Studying religion through social media without
control can lead to intolerance and extremism loaded
with racist, hateful, and religious and political
sentiments, especially in the midst of the high
intensity of social media access as is the case in
Indonesia. In 2017, Tetra Pak Index recorded about
132 million internet users in Indonesia with more than
106 million people using social media every month
and 85% of them accessing social media through
mobile devices. The rapid development of social
media users in Indonesia, especially with the Covid-
19 pandemic that requires people to communicate
more often in cyberspace and avoid direct contact has
an impact on the increasing level of accessibility of
the public to social media. According to data released
by the marketing agency ”We Are Social” and social
media management platform “Hootsuite” in January
2021, social media access in Indonesia has reached
202.6 million people with a penetration of 73.7
percent and 96.4 percent of them use smartphones to
access the internet.
The above facts show that social media is a very
strategic and decisive entrance to the religious
understanding and religiosity of a person (netizen)
that ultimately affects identity politics. The three
important components that are intertwined in the
study of this article are social media, religion, and
political identity.
First, social media. In media theory, the most
important element in the process of information
extension is the connectedness between different
groups or individuals. From the interconnection, an
interest is faced with other interests to then take a firm
and clear stance. The development of information
technology causes individual communication and
interaction with other individuals to change. Social
media leads to individuals being able to communicate
beyond the limits of physical existence or state
authority. Individuals become so independent in
establishing communication with other individuals.
That freedom has an impact on the not selecting of
Social Media, Political Identities, and Religiosity in Urban Society
25
information that can be obtained by individuals,
except selfselection skills. An individual becomes so
sovereign in determining his or her life orientation
and behavior based on the information that he or she
accesses through social media. Social media in this
study is not seen as just a tool of social
communication, but more than that, in social media
there is an ideology at once with a lot of interests.
Social media is a force that not only moves thinking
but can also drive action and even undermine a
regime of power. The case in Egypt and some Arab
Spring countries demonstrates the strong role of
social media in aggregating the collective interests of
society. With the development of social media and
higher public access in interactions in cyberspace, the
entire movement and activities of the community
have to do with the effect of the existence of social
media itself. Social media such as Facebook, Twitter,
Youtube, and Instagram are media that are loved by
the public in general, including Indonesians. This
ferocity is not only as consumers and users but also
not infrequently make social media effective
dissemination of religious understanding. The
effectiveness of the influence of social media on the
mindset and even the actions of the community is
inseparable from the intensity of social media in
providing a variety of interactive information and
being the closest listener to various problems faced
by the community, including in religious issues.
Thus, the correlation between social media and the
formation of orientation and knowledge or
understanding of religion and practice in life can be
judged based on its proximity or affirmative attitude
towards religious of politics identity.
Second, religion and religious. In social life,
religion becomes an important element that drives
interaction. It refers not only to religious understanding
but also to the expression of understanding in the form
of its attitudes and behaviors as an integral part of its
religious beliefs. Clifford Geertz (Geertz and Darnton,
2017) referred to religion as a symbol system that can
create a calm mood and be a motivation in acting,
formulating the conception of its existence to
encourage the actions of its adherents. “a religion is:
(1) a system of symbols which acts to (2) establish
powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods and
motivations in men by (3) formulating conceptions of
a general order of existence and (4) clothing these
conceptions with such an aura of factuality that (5) the
moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic.” In the
context of religious views on differences can be seen
from the perspective of Alan Race (Race, 1983) with
his tripolar typology, namely exclusionism,
inclusionism, and pluralism. These three theological
perception typologies have an impact on social
interaction patterns. Exclusive groups are those who
place their religion as the most correct and otherwise
false, misguided, and deviant. This view results in an
act that always tries to straighten and show the way
of truth as the only way. At the extreme point of this
paradigm of exclusionism confirms the existence of
other religious groups that are considered different.
Even worse, the negation is supported by political
interests through policies that favor certain religious
groups. The view of inclusionism is the antithesis of
exclusionism. Inclusionism refers to attitudes or
understandings that place salvation on other religions
on God’s blessings. The way of salvation in other
religions is a form of God’s given affection, not
inherent in each religion itself. Truth is more of a
form of God’s “affirmative” towards other religions.
In contrast to the exclusionism that places the
monopoly of truth and salvation on only one religion,
inclusionism expands the space of salvation in other
religions for God’s affection for that other religion. In
this perspective of inclusionism is still stored the
dominance of certain religions, but it can provide a
way of salvation for adherents of other religions.
Religious egos still arise because of salvation even
more widely, but remain in the dominance of certain
religions. This is what then triggered the emergence
of the next typology, namely pluralism that places
religions as a reality that has its truth. This pluralism
viewpoint requires all religions to be respectful,
tolerant, and moderate. In this view, there is no single
truth that causes other groups to be wrong and
therefore tried. Religious pluralism places each
religion as a carrier of goodness under his/her beliefs
and can synergize in expressing his/her religion
through measured and constructive work for
togetherness as a people as well as citizens.
Third, political identity is an effort to fight for the
interests of certain individuals or groups whether
related to ethnicity, gender, race, or religion. This is
especially evident in the second half of the twentieth
century as demonstrated by the ongoing movement
demanding justice for disadvantaged minority groups
(Elshayyal, 2018). Historically, identity of politics
was an expression of a group (in America) that felt
oppressed and marginalized by majority domination
in a country (Maarif, 2010). In its development,
political identity is a resistance to diversity that is
considered threatening to its existence. Religious,
tribe, racial, and ethnic identity in Indonesian society
is very strong because it becomes part of social life
and becomes a reality of the diversity of citizens.
Ethnic, tribe, linguistic, and religious differences
become the spirit that moves the Indonesian nation in
ICRI 2021 - International Conference on Recent Innovations
26
one unity without melting the diversity. This is a
much stronger capital than even developed countries
that have not fully managed to place differences in
skin color in the unity of their country. That identity
becomes crucial amidst the diversity of citizens when
used to increase incentives on behalf of groups or
communities and to define other groups. This is
where the issue of social life is easily an issue by
placing identity as a massive driving tool. In this
context, religion as an identity that is considered very
visceral in social life becomes a commodity
constructed to provoke antipathy towards other
groups. Identity politics that takes place in Indonesia
leads to the strengthening of the majority religious
issue in the hope of gaining massive incentives,
especially in the context of political interests. This is
the paradox of political identity that is actually a
medium of a struggle for marginalized groups to
obtain their constitutional rights as citizens, not by the
majority group that is instead used to strengthen its
existence as well as a threat to minority groups.
3 SOCIAL MEDIA AND THE
DOMINATION OF
CONSERVATISM
According to the findings of research conducted by
the Center for the Study of Islam and Society (PPIM)
2020, there is a dominance of conservative religious
narratives on social media. Although other religious
understandings also color religious discourses,
especially on Twitter platforms, but the buzz of
conservatism dominates the conversation in the
virtual realm with a percentage (67.2%), followed by
moderates (22.2%), liberals (6.1%), and Islamists
(4.5%). From 2009-2019, the conservative use of
hashtags became the most popular. Hashtags that are
neutral in use are often associated with conservative
religious beliefs. This conservatism includes religious
politics, citizenship, gender, and others. The tendency
of religious politics or precisely religious
politicization is directly proportional to the period of
political contestation, especially at the national level,
and began to strengthen since 2014 with two
groupings of extreme; us and them.
Table 2: Religious Discourse on Twitter.
Discourse Percenta
g
e
Conservative 67,2 %
Moderate 22,2 %
Liberal 6,1 %
Islamists 4,5%
Geographically, this study found the fact that Java
Island is an arena that becomes a contest of religious
understanding, especially in Jakarta. Moderates
dominated discourse in cyberspace with 67.11%,
followed by conservatives (60.11%), Islamists
(53.19%), and liberals (44.64%). In addition to
Jakarta, liberal narratives emerged in East Java with
a proportion of 22.62%. The contribution of young
and progressive groups in the NU (Nahdlatul Ulama)
body in East Java is quite instrumental to the high
proportion of liberalism in East Java. In line with the
findings of other research, West Java occupies a
position as a province that has a fairly high proportion
of Islamist and conservative narratives with a high
number of 15% and 10%.
Table 3: Religious Discourse on Twitter.
Discourse Percenta
g
e
Moderate 67,11 %
Conservative 60,11 %
Islamists 53,19 %
Liberal 44,64 %
Although generally the most moderate religious
discourse, but the difference with conservative
understanding is not very significant, especially when
combined with Islamist groups, the dominance of
conservative-Islamist groups is very dominant
coloring religious discourse on social media.
According to the results of the study entitled “The
Use of Social Media as a Medium of Islamic Learning
Towards Students at the College of Higher
Education” found that 58.7% of respondents follow
the issue of Islam through social media. Islamic social
media accounts were followed by 52 respondents.
A total of 52.2% of respondents said the reason
they follow social media is that they know the
character. A total of 82.6% of respondents said that
they always follow the issue of Islam being discussed
and the same figures show that when hearing about
Islam they always seek the truth of the issue. Direct
involvement of respondents in uploading status
related with Islamic issues only 28.3% and only
32.6% of respondents who often discuss Islam on
social media. It also found that 85% agreed that
young people believe that social media is effective in
becoming a medium of preaching. This indicates that
the method of spreading Islam in cyberspace,
especially on social networking sites tends to be more
frequently accessed by Muslims, especially for those
who are young and have solid activities. One of the
advantages of Islamic learning methods on social
networking sites is that there is no element of
coercion and bonding. This suggests that the stigma
Social Media, Political Identities, and Religiosity in Urban Society
27
of coercion, indoctrination and application of
coercive dogmatism does not occur in Islamic
learning methods through social networking sites.
Interesting findings from respondents showed that
Muslim adolescents with better education tended to
pay more attention to the references and validity of
literature presented on social media. Thus, Islamic
learning through social networking sites also needs to
be collaborated with the selection of accounts to be
referenced; this is to avoid anonymous accounts that
sometimes only spread hate viruses. The role of
religious leaders still occupies an important position
because the tendency of the Muslim community in
Indonesia still shows dependence on religious
leaders.
Table 4: Students Perception of the Role of Religious Social
Media.
Statement Yes % No %
H1 44 95.7 2 4.3
H2 15 32.6 31 67.4
H3 34 73.9 12 26.1
H4 27 58.7 19 41.3
H5 24 52.2 22 47.8
H6 38 82.6 8 17.4
H7 38 82.6 8 17.4
H8 45 97.8 1 2.2
Note:
H1.Actively use social media
H2.Post something on your social media account
every day
H3.Active or passive users
H4.Following ustadz accounts/religious figures
or other Islamic accounts
H5.Following ustadz or religious leaders because
they know their background
H6.Following the issue of Islam happening in
Indonesia through social media
H7.Check news sources
H8.Da’wah can be done through social media
Islamic society should realize that the use of
internet technology in preaching aims to facilitate the
delivery of religious advice globally to people in
various regions. On the other hand, the quality of
speakers on social media varies both in terms of
lecture contests and the breadth of religious treasures.
Speakers on social media can be categorized into
three groups. First, a true dai who has scientific
authority is known to the public. Secondly, it is from
a religious group that has scientific authority but is
not known to the public. Third, dai is not from a
religious group but has a desire to carry out dawah
and provide knowledge through social media.
Therefore, internet users should make comparisons in
obtaining knowledge through social media by
tracking the original source as a tabayyun concept
(Adam et al., 2015). In the context of religious
learning, sometimes not all problems can be answered
directly by the internet. This is where the importance
of the role of teachers can directly communicate the
problems faced. The results of this study show that
social media has a vital role in Islamic learning and
becomes a tool of da’wah.
For the Muslim community, the use of social
media as a medium of religious learning is very useful
as a medium of da’wah that is relevant to the current
context. The Internet is a medium that cannot be
eliminated in the delivery of information, content, and
thoughts to people who want to convey and obtain
religious information. The Internet can be a medium
of knowledge, study, and thought for the community.
Some detrimental elements that appear cannot be
used as a barrier for the community in its use as a
medium of religious learning. Phobias in internet use
coupled with the attitude of distancing technology
will cause the group to be alienated and get rid of
technology because it is considered not to give good
and blessings, not to practice the rules of learning and
so on can cause Islamic society to be left behind in
actualizing thought and marginalized in religious
innovation.
The Use of Youtube as a Medium of Religious
Learning in Generation Y in Terengganu, Malaysia.
Generation Y is a generation born between 1980 and
2000 born in the technological era. Youtube is a very
popular social media and often used by generation Y
to get useful information in various forms of images,
videos, or animations. Youtube is an interesting
medium for generation Y because it combines audio
and visual elements that provide innovative and
creative benefits in the learning process. This study
was conducted on 100 respondents and showed the
results of the usefulness and usefulness factors of
Youtube in religious studies. Youtube is a medium
that is often used in seeking information that
combines audio and visuals innovatively and
creatively in the learning process.
Table 5: Religious Content Accessed Through Youtube.
Reli
g
ious Themes Percenta
g
e
Watch reli
g
ious movies 85 %
Reli
g
ious lectures 20 %
Religious
entertainmen
17 %
Learn the Qur'an 5 %
Learn worship 3 %
ICRI 2021 - International Conference on Recent Innovations
28
A total of 47% of respondents stated using
youtube media to watch religious lectures, religious
issues as much as 20%, religious entertainment 17%,
studying the Qur’an 5%, watching religious films
85%, and learning prayer or worship only 3%. The
use of media in the learning process has to do with the
level of education of its users. The higher the level of
education the higher the level of media use because
they feel the benefits of the internet in studying
religion. In the context of using youtube, the benefits
of youtube become important in providing religious
input for users. To ensure users don’t fall into
mistakes and misunderstandings in internet use,
religious knowledge is key in decision making. In
other words, studying religion from the internet is not
in its original position but previously had knowledge
as a filter of information obtained.
Studying religion through social media should be
supported by policies in selecting religious content
and sites. Social media is currently considered able to
meet the needs of many people. Starting from the
need to find information, communicate, interact, open
up, even to religious needs. Activities on social media
that meet one’s religious needs are searching for
religious material, discussing religion, and also
opening up about the religion that is outlined in the
status of writing, images, or videos. In an
unstructured survey on Facebook, some social media
users felt that with the rise of Islamic material in the
social media timeline, they were increasingly
interested in studying Islam, feeling a better
understanding of Islam, and felt their daily behavior
was increasing and more appropriate with Islamic
guidance. Islamic material on social media is also
considered useful for those who feel they have limited
time to attend learning forums. The positive impact
will be felt when netizens choose an in-depth study
and have certain studies and themes in religion. But
on the other hand, there are also concerns about the
rise of religious extremism, the rise of hate speech, to
lies on social media that if not able to be clarified, will
be stuck on a false understanding. This is where the
urgency of the rules of the game in social media, so
that citizens remain controlled understanding so that
it has a constructive impact on national life,
statehood, and religion.
Social media as one of the effective media to
study Islam can not be used as a primary media to
meet all aspects of one’s religious needs. To gain a
more comprehensive understanding, it is appropriate
to study Islam directly to religious leaders, by
attending formal classes, and text literature from
trusted scholars.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Islamic learning through social media among the
rational circle, as the characteristics of the city
community, has a strong enough influence. The
results of the study of “The Use of Social Media
Instagram as a Medium of Communication Among
Muslim Students” of the Faculty of Social and
Political University of Riau, for example, showed that
the use of Instagram in following Islamic religious
learning affects student behavior, be it elements of
cognition, affection, and psychomotor of their
behavior at university. This change is seen in the way
you dress, talk and start activities on campus. Some
students take religious lessons and tabligh akbar by
obtaining information and communicating through
Instagram. The owner of the da’wah account acts as a
teacher by providing informative messages and
motivations from religiously sourced educational
backgrounds. Motives for using Instagram as a
communication medium for religious learning are
two kinds, namely in-order-to motifs (future motives)
and causal motives (past motives). These motives
explain the reason why students do not study religion
by using religious studies or lectures on learning
forums. Second, the message is shorter, more precise,
and not confusing compared to those taken from the
Qur’an and hadith. Third, posts made on Instagram
motivate students to keep growing. Communication
information messages from Islamic da’wah accounts
contained in captions and photos uploaded as a visual
medium provide convenience for users in
understanding the content of messages. The learning
process that transforms informants begins with a
change in cognition, based on knowledge and
understanding of the application of information
submitted by Islamic da’wah accounts on Instagram.
understanding of the application of information
submitted by Islamic da'wah accounts on Instagram.
Social media contributes to religious
understanding as to the findings of several previous
studies that in this study are associated or influential
to political identity that if left unchecked will give rise
to a broader social effect, in the form of social divides
based on religious identity amid diversity. The
rationality of the people of the city is not a guarantee
of the strengthening of rational religion, which is
based on religious rules that can be accepted by
reason, as religion always invites to think. From some
of the findings above, it is clear that social media has
a dominant influence on the political identity of
rational Jakarta people with relatively high levels of
education and economic income. The intensity and
massification of social media content have become a
Social Media, Political Identities, and Religiosity in Urban Society
29
hegemonic force that at some point ”forces”
rationality to be subject to the emotionality of
religion. This problem could not be solved by the
establishment or dissolution of the organization or
what was considered conservative because the policy
instead triggered the involvement of some citizens to
enter into conservatism understanding that is directly
proportional to the identity politics of the city
community. This is where the need for mapping to
social media is signaled to have an impact on the
dynamics of political identity, so that constructive
and concrete steps can be taken for the creation of a
moderate and tolerant social order without having to
deny let alone establish social media that becomes a
strategic foothold in social interaction, especially
during a pandemic.
It needs comprehensive and synergistic measures
involving all elements in both the state and society for
the establishment of a moderate order of life in the
midst of an increasingly hegemonic social media
presence. The steps that must be taken in addressing
the rapid development of social media that is directly
proportional to the religious spirit of the community,
especially the city community, is first, filtering the
information obtained on social media. Information
that is provocative, trying to divide with religious
justification is enough as to be own knowledge and
does not need to be disseminated. Second, clarify and
confirm the information. Any information obtained
on social media needs to be clarified as well as
confirmed to people or figures who have capabilities
in the field of religion so that there is a balance of
understanding and clear scientific references so that
netizens can draw balanced conclusions. Third, the
provision of constructive social media content. The
existence of diverse social media with diverse sources
and quality, it is needed to be balanced by the
existence of social media with moderate content so
that the public can find answers to religious social
problems in a moderate manner.
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